Does Oral Health-Related Quality of Life Differ by Income Group? Findings from a Nationally Representative Survey
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Outcome: Oral Health-Related Quality of Life
2.3. Independent Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sample Characteristics Stratified by Income Group and Effect Sizes
3.2. Regression Analysis
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Findings
4.2. Previous Research and Possible Explanations
4.3. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Lowest Income Decile | Second to Ninth Income Deciles | Highest Income Decile | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
N = 328 | N = 2006 | N = 427 | ||
Gender | 0.15 | |||
Men | 166 (50.6%) | 987 (49.2%) | 236 (55.3%) | |
Women | 161 (49.1%) | 1017 (50.7%) | 191 (44.7%) | |
Diverse | 1 (0.3%) | 2 (0.1%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
Age | 41.3 (16.8) | 45.4 (14.5) | 44.6 (13.0) | <0.001 |
Marital status | <0.001 | |||
Single/Divorced/Widowed/Married, not living together with spouse | 272 (82.9%) | 837 (41.7%) | 58 (13.6%) | |
Married, living together with spouse | 56 (17.1%) | 1169 (58.3%) | 369 (86.4%) | |
Highest educational degree | <0.001 | |||
Upper secondary school | 114 (34.8%) | 772 (38.5%) | 282 (66.0%) | |
Qualification for applied upper secondary school | 37 (11.3%) | 210 (10.5%) | 44 (10.3%) | |
Polytechnic Secondary School | 26 (7.9%) | 123 (6.1%) | 7 (1.6%) | |
Intermediate Secondary School | 80 (24.4%) | 648 (32.3%) | 82 (19.2%) | |
Lower Secondary School | 65 (19.8%) | 243 (12.1%) | 11 (2.6%) | |
Currently in school training/education | 2 (0.6%) | 6 (0.3%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
Without school-leaving qualification | 4 (1.2%) | 4 (0.2%) | 1 (0.2%) | |
Employment status | <0.001 | |||
Full-time employed | 23 (7.0%) | 1012 (50.4%) | 307 (71.9%) | |
Retired | 81 (24.7%) | 355 (17.7%) | 30 (7.0%) | |
Other | 224 (68.3%) | 639 (31.9%) | 90 (21.1%) | |
Chronic diseases | <0.001 | |||
Absence of chronic diseases | 160 (48.8%) | 1106 (55.1%) | 288 (67.4%) | |
Presence of at least one chronic disease | 168 (51.2%) | 900 (44.9%) | 139 (32.6%) | |
Self-rated health (1 = very bad to 5 = very good) | 3.3 (1.0) | 3.6 (0.9) | 3.9 (0.8) | <0.001 |
Oral health-related quality of life (OHIP-G5; from 0 to 20, with higher scores indicating lower oral health-related quality of life) | 3.4 (4.1) | 2.2 (3.3) | 1.6 (3.0) | <0.001 |
Household Net Income Group | Oral Health-Related Quality of Life (Mean and SD in Parentheses) |
---|---|
under EUR 500 (n = 104) | 3.1 (3.9) |
500 EUR to lower than EUR 1000 (n = 224) | 3.5 (4.1) |
EUR 1000 to lower than EUR 1500 (n = 291) | 2.8 (3.6) |
EUR 1500 to lower than EUR 2000 (n = 361) | 2.4 (3.5) |
EUR 2000 to lower than EUR 2500 (n = 364) | 2.3 (3.4) |
EUR 2500 to lower than EUR 3000 (n = 330) | 2.2 (3.2) |
EUR 3000 to lower than EUR 3500 (n = 272) | 1.9 (3.2) |
EUR 3500 to lower than EUR 4000 (n = 247) | 1.8 (3.1) |
EUR 4000 to lower than EUR 4500 (n = 141) | 2.1 (3.2) |
EUR 4500 to lower than EUR 5000 (n = 180) | 1.7 (2.8) |
EUR 5000 to lower than EUR 6000 (n = 131) | 1.2 (2.8) |
EUR 6000 to lower than EUR 8000 (n = 85) | 1.5 (3.1) |
EUR 8000 or more (n = 31) | 2.1 (4.3) |
Not reported (n = 314) | 1.7 (2.5) |
Independent Variables | Oral Health-Related Quality of Life–with Listwise Deletion to Address Missing Values | Oral Health-Related Quality of Life–with FIML to Address Missing Values |
---|---|---|
Lowest income decile (Ref.: Second to ninth income deciles) | 0.75 ** (0.25) | 0.72 ** (0.24) |
Highest income decile | −0.29 + (0.17) | −0.28 + (0.16) |
Covariates | √ | √ |
Observations | 2761 | 3075 |
R2 | 0.07 | 0.06 |
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Hajek, A.; König, H.-H.; Kretzler, B.; Zwar, L.; Lieske, B.; Seedorf, U.; Walther, C.; Aarabi, G. Does Oral Health-Related Quality of Life Differ by Income Group? Findings from a Nationally Representative Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10826. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710826
Hajek A, König H-H, Kretzler B, Zwar L, Lieske B, Seedorf U, Walther C, Aarabi G. Does Oral Health-Related Quality of Life Differ by Income Group? Findings from a Nationally Representative Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(17):10826. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710826
Chicago/Turabian StyleHajek, André, Hans-Helmut König, Benedikt Kretzler, Larissa Zwar, Berit Lieske, Udo Seedorf, Carolin Walther, and Ghazal Aarabi. 2022. "Does Oral Health-Related Quality of Life Differ by Income Group? Findings from a Nationally Representative Survey" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 17: 10826. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710826