Relationships between Socioeconomic Status, Handgrip Strength, and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Middle-Aged Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Socioeconomic Status
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Definition of NAFLD
2.5. Relative Handgrip Strength
2.6. Statistics
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Total (n = 5272) | Men (n = 1678) | Women (n = 3594) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Anthropometrics | ||||
Age (years) | 57.1 ± 4.2 | 57.3 ± 4.2 | 57.0 ± 4.2 | 0.081 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.1 ± 3.2 | 24.4 ± 2.8 | 24.0 ± 3.3 | <0.001 |
WC (cm) | 82.2 ± 8.9 | 86.4 ± 7.8 | 80.3 ± 8.7 | <0.001 |
Absolute HGS (kg) | 29.7 ± 9.1 | 40.6 ± 6.5 | 24.6 ± 4.4 | <0.001 |
Relative HGS (kg/BMI) | 47.8 ± 11.8 | 1.68 ± 0.30 | 1.04 ± 0.22 | <0.001 |
Socioeconomic status | ||||
Household income (KRW 10,000/month) | 449.7 ± 330.8 | 473.3 ± 322.5 | 438.6 ± 334.2 | <0.001 |
Education (years) | 11.4 ± 3.8 | 12.5 ± 3.8 | 10.9 ± 3.7 | <0.001 |
Sociodemographic status | ||||
Marital status, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
Married | 4487 (85.1) | 1501 (89.5) | 2986 (83.1) | |
Widow/divorced | 686 (13.0) | 123 (7.3) | 563 (15.6) | |
Unmarried | 99 (1.9) | 54 (3.2) | 45 (1.3) | |
Region, n (%) | 0.009 | |||
Urban | 4290 (81.4) | 1331 (79.3) | 2959 (82.3) | |
Rural | 982 (18.6) | 347 (20.7) | 635 (17.7) | |
Type of housing, n (%) | 0.263 | |||
Apartment | 2762 (52.4) | 898 (53.5) | 1864 (51.9) | |
General house | 2510 (47.6) | 780 (46.5) | 1730 (48.1) | |
Health-related factors | ||||
Smoking, n (%) | 1494 (28.3) | 1304 (77.7) | 190 (5.3) | <0.001 |
Alcohol consumption, n (%) | 138 (2.6) | 65 (3.9) | 73 (2.0) | <0.001 |
Regular exercise, n (%) | 1115 (21.1) | 444 (26.5) | 671 (18.7) | <0.001 |
Hypertension, n (%) | 1304 (24.7) | 461 (27.5) | 843 (23.5) | 0.002 |
Diabetes, n (%) | 512 (9.7) | 217 (12.9) | 295 (8.2) | <0.001 |
Menopause, n (%) | 3202 (60.7) | 0 (0.0) | 3202 (89.1) | <0.001 |
Variables | Low SES (n = 1247) | Middle SES (n = 2646) | High SES (n = 1379) | p for Linear Trends |
---|---|---|---|---|
Socioeconomic status | ||||
Household income (KRW 10,000/month) | 157.7 ± 134.9 | 404.3 ± 237.3 | 800.6 ± 299.6 | <0.001 |
Education (years) | 7.6 ± 2.9 | 11.3 ± 2.7 | 15.1 ± 2.7 | <0.001 |
SES index | 15.3 ± 6.5 | 41.0 ± 11.2 | 73.0 ± 12.6 | <0.001 |
Anthropometrics | ||||
Women, n (%) | 817 (65.5) | 1780 (67.3) | 997 (72.3) | <0.001 |
Age (years) | 59.0 ± 3.8 | 57.0 ± 4.1 | 55.6 ± 3.9 | <0.001 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.6 ± 3.4 | 24.2 ± 3.1 | 23.4 ± 3.0 | <0.001 |
WC (cm) | 84.0 ± 9.2 | 82.5 ± 8.8 | 80.0 ± 8.5 | <0.001 |
Absolute HGS (kg) | 29.1 ± 9.2 | 30.2 ± 9.3 | 29.3 ± 8.4 | 0.685 |
Relative HGS (kg/BMI) | 1.20 ± 0.41 | 1.26 ± 0.40 | 1.26 ± 0.35 | <0.001 |
Sociodemographic status | ||||
Marital status, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
Married | 886 (71.1) | 2294 (86.7) | 1307 (94.7) | |
Widow/divorced | 308 (24.6) | 315 (11.9) | 63 (4.6) | |
Unmarried | 53 (4.3) | 37 (1.4) | 9 (0.7) | |
Region, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
Urban | 911 (73.1) | 2142 (81.0) | 1237 (89.7) | |
Rural | 336 (26.9) | 504 (19.0) | 142 (10.3) | |
Type of housing, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
Apartment | 430 (34.5) | 1295 (48.9) | 1037 (75.2) | |
General house | 817 (65.5) | 1,351 (51.1) | 342 (24.8) | |
Health-related factors | ||||
Smoking, n (%) | 421 (33.8) | 771 (29.1) | 302 (21.9) | <0.001 |
Alcohol consumption, n (%) | 42 (3.4) | 61 (2.3) | 35 (2.5) | 0.201 |
Regular exercise, n (%) | 139 (11.1) | 541 (20.4) | 435 (31.5) | <0.001 |
Hypertension, n (%) | 428 (34.3) | 636 (24.0) | 240 (17.4) | <0.001 |
Diabetes, n (%) | 172 (13.8) | 257 (9.7) | 83 (6.0) | <0.001 |
Menopause, n (%) | 778 (62.4) | 1,607 (60.7) | 817 (59.2) | 0.100 |
Blood markers | ||||
FBG (mg/dL) | 106.2 ± 28.0 | 102.2 ± 23.9 | 99.2 ± 18.0 | <0.001 |
HDL-C (mg/dL) | 49.1 ± 11.8 | 50.6 ± 12.3 | 52.5 ± 12.8 | <0.001 |
TG (mg/dL) | 149.5 ± 105.7 | 133.8 ± 85.2 | 126.8 ± 89.4 | <0.001 |
AST (IU/L) | 24.5 ± 12.0 | 23.4 ± 8.8 | 22.9 ± 8.5 | <0.001 |
ALT (IU/L) | 23.5 ± 15.5 | 22.7 ± 14.3 | 22.0 ± 13.8 | 0.011 |
Uric acid (mg/dL) | 5.79 ± 0.85 | 5.84 ± 0.87 | 5.82 ± 0.84 | 0.492 |
NAFLD index | ||||
HSI | 33.8 ± 4.8 | 33.3 ± 4.5 | 32.5 ± 4.4 | <0.001 |
CNS | 58.4 ± 31.4 | 52.3 ± 31.3 | 44.2 ± 31.1 | <0.001 |
Variables | Low HGS (n = 1317) | Middle HGS (n = 2638) | High HGS (n = 1317) | p for Linear Trends |
---|---|---|---|---|
Handgrip strength | ||||
Absolute HGS (kg) | 24.5 ± 7.7 | 29.9 ± 8.2 | 34.4 ± 9.3 | <0.001 |
Relative HGS (kg/BMI) | 0.94 ± 0.28 | 1.24 ± 0.31 | 1.56 ± 0.37 | <0.001 |
Socioeconomic status | ||||
Household income (KRW 10,000/month) | 408.3 ± 33.41 | 451.7 ± 326.0 | 486.9 ± 332.8 | <0.001 |
Education (years) | 10.7 ± 4.1 | 11.5 ± 3.8 | 12.0 ± 3.4 | <0.001 |
SES index | 38.6 ± 23.9 | 43.7 ± 22.8 | 47.1 ± 21.9 | <0.001 |
Anthropometrics | ||||
Women, n (%) | 898 (68.2) | 1798 (68.2) | 898 (68.2) | 1.000 |
Age (years) | 57.9 ± 4.2 | 57.2 ± 4.1 | 56.1 ± 4.1 | <0.001 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 26.2 ± 3.4 | 24.1 ± 2.7 | 22.1 ± 2.3 | <0.001 |
WC (cm) | 87.4 ± 9.2 | 82.0 ± 7.9 | 77.4 ± 7.5 | <0.001 |
Sociodemographic status | ||||
Marital status, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
Married | 1063 (80.7) | 2248 (85.2) | 1176 (89.3) | |
Widow/divorced | 215 (16.3) | 343 (13.0) | 128 (9.7) | |
Unmarried | 39 (3.0) | 47 (1.8) | 13 (1.0) | |
Region, n (%) | 0.109 | |||
Urban | 1050 (79.7) | 2158 (81.8) | 1082 (82.2) | |
Rural | 267 (20.3) | 480 (18.2) | 235 (17.8) | |
Type of housing, n (%) | 0.001 | |||
Apartment | 652 (49.5) | 1370 (51.9) | 740 (56.2) | |
General house | 665 (50.5) | 1268 (48.1) | 577 (43.8) | |
Health-related factors | ||||
Smoking, n (%) | 374 (28.4) | 746 (28.3) | 374 (28.4) | 0.995 |
Alcohol consumption, n (%) | 29 (2.2) | 66 (2.5) | 43 (3.3) | 0.088 |
Regular exercise, n (%) | 207 (15.7) | 578 (21.9) | 330 (25.1) | <0.001 |
Hypertension, n (%) | 431 (32.7) | 661 (25.1) | 212 (16.1) | <0.001 |
Diabetes, n (%) | 183 (13.9) | 248 (9.4) | 81 (6.2) | <0.001 |
Menopause, n (%) | 813 (61.7) | 1631 (61.8) | 758 (57.6) | 0.028 |
Blood markers | ||||
FBG (mg/dL) | 106.9 ± 30.3 | 102.2 ± 21.9 | 98.2 ± 18.3 | <0.001 |
HDL-C (mg/dL) | 48.5 ± 11.9 | 50.7 ± 12.2 | 52.9 ± 12.9 | <0.001 |
TG (mg/dL) | 149.1 ± 94.8 | 138.2 ± 98.4 | 117.2 ± 69.9 | <0.001 |
AST (IU/L) | 24.7 ± 10.4 | 23.3 ± 9.8 | 22.6 ± 8.3 | <0.001 |
ALT (IU/L) | 25.6 ± 16.5 | 22.7 ± 14.4 | 19.9 ± 11.6 | <0.001 |
Uric acid (mg/dL) | 5.73 ± 0.80 | 5.83 ± 0.87 | 5.90 ± 0.88 | <0.001 |
NAFLD index | ||||
HSI | 35.9 ± 4.8 | 33.2 ± 4.2 | 30.5 ± 3.6 | <0.001 |
CNS | 69.4 ± 28.4 | 52.3 ± 30.2 | 32.5 ± 26.5 | <0.001 |
OR (95% CI) | p Value | |
---|---|---|
SES categories | ||
High SES | 1 (reference) | |
Middle SES | 1.340 (1.144–1.570) | <0.001 |
Low SES | 1.703 (1.424–2.037) | <0.001 |
Each one score increase | 1.008 (1.006–1.011) | <0.001 |
Relative HGS categories | ||
High HGS | 1 (reference) | |
Middle HGS | 4.300 (3.402–5.435) | <0.001 |
Low HGS | 12.161 (9.548–15.488) | <0.001 |
Each 0.1 kg/BMI increase | 1.157 (1.135–1.179) | <0.001 |
Crude Model | Model 1 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | p Value | OR (95% CI) | p Value | |
High SES plus | ||||
High HGS | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | ||
Low HGS | 9.286 (5.868–14.694) | <0.001 | 2.277 (1.307–3.967) | 0.004 |
Low SES plus | ||||
High HGS | 1.364 (0.748–2.490) | 0.311 | 0.811 (0.391–1.682) | 0.573 |
Low HGS | 13.499 (8.755–20.812) | <0.001 | 2.479 (1.351–4.549) | 0.003 |
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Cho, J.; Lee, I.; Park, D.-H.; Kwak, H.-B.; Min, K. Relationships between Socioeconomic Status, Handgrip Strength, and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Middle-Aged Adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1892. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041892
Cho J, Lee I, Park D-H, Kwak H-B, Min K. Relationships between Socioeconomic Status, Handgrip Strength, and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Middle-Aged Adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(4):1892. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041892
Chicago/Turabian StyleCho, Jinkyung, Inhwan Lee, Dong-Ho Park, Hyo-Bum Kwak, and Kisuk Min. 2021. "Relationships between Socioeconomic Status, Handgrip Strength, and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Middle-Aged Adults" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 4: 1892. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041892