Diagnostic Evaluation and Preparation of the Reference Information for River Restoration in South Korea
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Sampling
2.3. Data Processing
2.4. Preparation of the Reference Information for Restoration of the Degraded River
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Diagnostic Evaluation of Rivers
3.2. Relationships between the Riparian Vegetation Index and Grades Based on Each Vegetation Component
3.3. Relationships between the Riparian Vegetation Index and Indices Based on Other Taxa and Water Quality
3.4. Reference Information for Restoration of the Degraded River
3.5. Restoration Plan Based on the Diagnostic Evaluation Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Evolution of River Assessment Methods
4.2. Naturalness of the Rivers in Korea Based on Riparian Vegetation
4.3. Necessity of River Restoration
4.4. Recommendations for Achieving true Restoration
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Score Component | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Community diversity (no. of communities, 4) | <3 | 4 to 5 | 6 to 7 | 8 to 9 | >10 |
No. of exotic species (%, 1) | >34 | 25 to 34 | 15 to 24 | 5 to 14 | <5 |
No. of annual plants (%, 1) | <9, >56 | 51 to 55 | 46 to 50 | 41 to 45 | 10 to 40 |
No. of obligate upland plant (%, 1) | >75 | 71 to 75 | 66 to 70 | 61 to 65 | <61 |
Occupied area by exotic plants (%, 1) | >35 | 26 to 35 | 16 to 25 | 6 to 15 | <6 |
Occupied area by annual plants (%, 1) | >49 | 37 to 49 | 24 to 36 | 11 to 23 | <11 |
Occupied area by obligate upland plants (%, 1) | >71 | 55 to 71 | 38 to 54 | 21 to 37 | <21 |
Vegetation profile (grade, 8) 1 | First | Second | Third | Fourth | Fifth |
Species diversity (no. of species, 2) | <31 | 31 to 40 | 41 to 50 | 51 to 60 | >60 |
Grade of Naturalness | Very Good | Good | Moderate | Poor | Very Poor |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Score range | >70 | 61 to 70 | 51 to 60 | 41 to 50 | <41 |
Species Diversity | Community Diversity | Vegetation Profile | No. of Exotic Plants | No. of Obligate Upland Plants | No. of Annual Plants | Occupied Area of Exotic Species | Occupied Area of Obligate Upland Plants | Occupied Area of Annual Plants | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Community diversity | 0.17 ** | ||||||||
Vegetation profile | 0.35 ** | 0.11 ** | |||||||
No. of exotic species | −0.03 | −0.02 | −0.08 * | ||||||
No. of obligate upland plants | 0.00 | −0.12 ** | −0.10 ** | 0.08 * | |||||
No. of annual plants | −0.07 * | 0.09 ** | −0.23 ** | 0.32 ** | −0.29 ** | ||||
Occupied area of exotic species | 0.09 ** | 0.16 ** | 0.02 | 0.29 ** | 0.09 ** | 0.03 | |||
Occupied area of obligate upland plants | 0.00 | 0.12 ** | −0.14 ** | 021 ** | 0.14 ** | 0.08 * | 0.44 ** | ||
Occupied area of annual plants | −0.04 | 0.04 | −0.23 ** | 0.17 ** | −0.07 * | 0.37 ** | 0.11 ** | 0.34 ** | |
Riparian vegetation index | 0.52 ** | 0.51 ** | 0.76 ** | −0.25 ** | −0.16 ** | −0.26 ** | −0.11 ** | −0.29 ** | −0.35 ** |
Environmental Factors | BMI | TDI | FAI | HRI | BOD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
RVI | 0.18 ** | 0.26 ** | 0.19 ** | 0.16 ** | −0.10 ** |
Geographic Segment | Vegetation Zone | Vegetation Layer | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Canopy and Understory Tree | Shrub | Herb | ||
Upper Valley | Tree zone | Acer pictum subsp. mono, Carpinus cordata, Cornus controversa, Fraxinus mandshurica, Fraxinus rhynchophylla, Juglans mandshurica, Magnolia sieboldii etc. | Celastrus flagellaris, Deutzia parviflora, Lindera obtusiloba, Staphylea bumalda, Stephanandra incisa etc. | Astilbe rubra, Carex lanceolata, Chrysosplenium grayanum, Corydalis speciosa, Dryopteris crassirhizoma, Festuca ovina, Geum japonicum, Impatiens noli-tangere, Lamium album var. barbatum, Ligularia fischeri, Thalictrum aquilegifolium var. sibiricum, Vicia amoena etc. |
Lower Valley | Tree zone | Acer pictum subsp. mono, Acer tataricum subsp. ginnala, Carpinus cordata, Fraxinus mandshurica, Fraxinus rhynchophylla, Juglans mandshurica, Salix koreensis, Ulmus davidiana var. japonica etc. | Alangium platanifolium var. trilobum, Flueggea suffruticosa, Salix gracilistyla, Staphylea bumalda, Stephanandra incisa, Weigela subsessilis etc. | Boehmeria tricuspis, Corydalis speciosa, Dryopteris crassirhizoma, Impatiens textori, Persicaria longiseta, Persicaria thunbergii, Prunella vulgaris var. lilacina, Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculum, Stellaria alsine var. undulata, Vicia unijuga etc. |
Upstream | Tree zone | Acer tataricum subsp. ginnala, Fraxinus rhynchophylla, Juglans mandshurica, Salix chaenomeloides, Salix koreensis, Salix subfragilis, Ulmus davidiana var. japonica etc. | Salix gracilistyla, Salix integra etc. | Artemisia selengensis, Carex glabrescens, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Oenanthe javanica, Persicaria hydropiper, Persicaria thunbergii, Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites japonica, Scirpus radicans, Stellaria aquatica etc. |
Shrub zone | - | Rosa multiflora, Philadelphus schrenkii, Salix graciliglans, Salix gracilistyla, Salix integra, Staphylea bumalda etc. | Artemisia capillaris, Equisetum arvense, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Oenanthe javanica, Persicaria thunbergii, Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites communis, Phragmites japonica, Scirpus radicans etc. | |
Herb zone | - | - | Artemisia selengensis, Barbarea orthoceras, Cardamine flexuosa, Carex neurocarpa, Corydalis speciosa, Impatiens noli-tangere, Impatiens textori, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Oenanthe javanica, Persicaria nodosa, Persicaria thunbergii, Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites japonica, Scirpus radicans, Viola verecunda etc. | |
Midstream | Tree zone | Morus alba, Salix chaenomeloides, Salix koreensis, Salix pseudolasiogyne, Salix subfragilis, Ulmus parvifolia, Salix chaenomeloides etc. | Salix gracilistyla, Salix integra, Salix koriyanagi, Rosa multiflora etc. | Artemisia selengensis, Carex glabrescens, Carex miyabei, Centella asiatica, Impatiens noli-tangere, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Oenanthe javanica, Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites communis, Phragmites japonica, Scirpus radicans etc. |
Shrub zone | - | Salix graciliglans, Salix gracilistyla, Salix integra etc. | Alopecurus aequalis, Carex glabrescens, Equisetum arvense, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Persicaria thunbergii, Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites communis, Phragmites japonica, Scirpus radicans, Stellaria aquatica, Typha orientalis etc. | |
Herb zone | - | - | Artemisia selengensis, Centella asiatica, Echinochloa crusgalli var. oryzicola, Lespedeza cuneata, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Penthorum chinense, Persicaria hydropiper, Persicaria nodosa, Phalaris arundinacea, Phalaris japonica, Phragmites communis, Phragmites japonica, Sium suave etc. | |
Downstream | Tree zone | Salix chaenomeloides, Salix koreensis, Salix pseudolasiogyne, Salix subfragilis etc. | Rosa multiflora, Salix gracilistyla, Salix koriyanagi, Salix integra etc. | Artemisia selengensis, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Oenanthe javanica, Persicaria dissitiflora, Persicaria thunbergii, Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites communis, Phragmites japonica, Scirpus radicans, Typha orientalis etc. |
Herb zone | - | - | Artemisia selengensis, Carex glabrescens, Carex scabrifolia, Cyperus amuricus, Echinochloa crusgalli var. echinata, Echinochloa utilis, Eclipta prostrata, Juncus effusus var. decipiens, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Persicaria thunbergii, Phacelurus latifolius, Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites communis, Phragmites japonica, Scirpus radicans, Viola verecunda, Zizania latifolia etc. |
Naturalness Degree | Degradation Degree | Restoration Level | Restoration Method |
---|---|---|---|
Very poor | Very severely degraded | Overall active restoration | Restoration throughout the entire range of the riparian landscape from the channel through the floodplain to the weir, including morphology of river, vegetation, watershed management, and networking with the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem. |
Poor | Severely degraded | Partially active restoration | Similar restoration to the above but at a lower level Transformation of waterfront protection material from artificial to natural ones and introduction of vegetation on the floodplain and levee |
Moderate | Moderately degraded | Combination of active and passive restoration | Transformation of waterfront protection material from artificial to natural ones and introduction of vegetation on some parts of the floodplain and the levee |
Good | Lightly degraded | Artificial support | Transformation of waterfront protection material from artificial to natural ones and induction of establishment of natural vegetation on the levee |
Very good | Natural | Passive restoration | Leave in its natural process |
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Lim, C.H.; Pi, J.H.; Kim, A.R.; Cho, H.J.; Lee, K.S.; You, Y.H.; Lee, K.H.; Kim, K.D.; Moon, J.S.; Lee, C.S. Diagnostic Evaluation and Preparation of the Reference Information for River Restoration in South Korea. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041724
Lim CH, Pi JH, Kim AR, Cho HJ, Lee KS, You YH, Lee KH, Kim KD, Moon JS, Lee CS. Diagnostic Evaluation and Preparation of the Reference Information for River Restoration in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(4):1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041724
Chicago/Turabian StyleLim, Chi Hong, Jeong Hoon Pi, A Reum Kim, Hyun Je Cho, Kyu Song Lee, Young Han You, Kye Han Lee, Kee Dae Kim, Jeong Suk Moon, and Chang Seok Lee. 2021. "Diagnostic Evaluation and Preparation of the Reference Information for River Restoration in South Korea" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 4: 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041724