Loneliness and Depression among Women in Poland during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Aim of the Study
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Participants
3.2. Measurement
3.2.1. Socio-Demographic Questionnaire
3.2.2. Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS-M)
3.2.3. R-UCLA
3.2.4. Statistical Method
4. Results
4.1. Characteristics of the Study Group
4.2. Anxiety, Depression, and Irritability
4.3. Loneliness
4.4. Correlations between Loneliness and Anxiety, Depression, and Irritability
4.5. Sociodemographic Variables and the Severity of Anxiety, Depression, Irritation, and Loneliness
4.6. Health Variables and the Severity of Anxiety, Depression, Irritability, and Loneliness
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | M | Median | Min. | Max. | SD | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HADS-M | Anxiety | 7.90 | 7.00 | 0.0 | 21.0 | 4.76 |
Depression | 5.47 | 5.00 | 0.0 | 20.0 | 4.28 | |
Depression + Irritability | 8.14 | 7.50 | 0.0 | 26.0 | 5.36 | |
Total score | 16.0 | 15.00 | 0.0 | 47.0 | 9.66 |
Variable | M | Median | Min. | Max. | SD | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R-UCLA | Belonging and affiliation | 9.46 | 9.00 | 5.00 | 19.00 | 2.86 |
Intimate others | 22.48 | 22.00 | 10.00 | 40.00 | 6.93 | |
Social others | 8.34 | 8.00 | 5.00 | 20.00 | 3.05 | |
Total score | 40.29 | 39.00 | 20.00 | 69.00 | 10.82 |
HADS-M | R-UCLA | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Intimate Others | Social Others | Belonging and Affiliation | Total Score | |
Anxiety | r = 0.46 | r = 0.38 | r = 0.35 | r = 0.49 |
p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |
Depression | r = 0.48 | r = 0.47 | r = 0.42 | r = 0.55 |
p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |
Depression + irritability | r = 0.49 | r = 0.45 | r = 0.39 | r = 0.54 |
p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |
Total HADS-M score | r = 0.50 | r = 0.44 | r = 0.39 | r = 0.55 |
p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 |
Parameter | % of All Subjects | HADS-M | R-UCLA | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | t/H/r | M | SD | t/H/r | ||
Age | 100.00 | 16.5 | 9.66 | p < 0.001 r = −0.17 | 40.29 | 10.82 | p = 0.004 r = −0.13 |
Marital status | |||||||
In a relationship | 70.3 | 10.64 | 9.50 | p = 0.259 t = 1.11 | 39.05 | 10.24 | p < 0.001 t = 3.28 |
Single | 29.7 | 16.76 | 9.79 | 42.90 | 11.62 | ||
Education | |||||||
Primary/vocational/lower secondary | 30.2 | 18.92 | 11.50 | H = 6.95 p = 0.073 | 41.38 | 10.77 | H = 1.24 p = 0.742 |
Secondary/post-secondary | 52.8 | 15.43 | 9.74 | 40.64 | 11.11 | ||
Higher | 17.0 | 15.06 | 15.06 | 38.96 | 9.94 | ||
Employment status | |||||||
Old-age pensioner/incapacitated pensioner | 25.3 | 14.12 | 10.32 | H = 7.36 p = 0.061 | 39.70 | 10.50 | H = 3.56 p = 0.312 |
Unemployed | 16.3 | 16.41 | 9.00 | 39.00 | 9.89 | ||
Employed | 48.0 | 16.41 | 9.63 | 40.44 | 11.40 | ||
Students | 10.4 | 17.18 | 9.60 | 43.25 | 10.85 | ||
Place of residence | |||||||
Rural area | 38.0 | 16.42 | 9.67 | r = 0.050 p = 0.279 | 39.41 | 9.99 | r = 0.035 p = 0.445 |
City of up to 20,000 inhabitants | 10.0 | 18.22 | 10.90 | 41.12 | 11.69 | ||
City of 21,000–50,000 inhabitants | 13.5 | 14.25 | 9.28 | 39.01 | 9.94 | ||
City of 51,000–100,000 inhabitants | 9.2 | 15.26 | 9.82 | 39.93 | 11.07 | ||
City of 101,000–200,000 inhabitants | 9.0 | 15.76 | 9.33 | 39.66 | 10.89 | ||
City of 201,000–500,000 inhabitants | 8.3 | 14.93 | 10.68 | 41.12 | 13.26 | ||
City of over 500,000 inhabitants | 12.0 | 16.06 | 8.79 | 42.51 | 11.85 | ||
Person with whom one currently resides | |||||||
Alone | 10.6 | 13.74 | 10.66 | H = 7.95 p = 0.018 | 42.06 | 12.12 | H = 1.40 p = 0.494 |
With spouse/partner only | 25.8 | 15.01 | 9.89 | 39.56 | 10.27 | ||
With family (children, relatives) | 63.6 | 16.84 | 9.30 | 40.05 | 10.67 | ||
Financial situation rating | |||||||
Very good | 3.7 | 14.47 | 10.45 | r = −0.280 p < 0.001 | 34.94 | 11.87 | r = −0.194 p < 0.001 |
Quite good | 34.4 | 13.57 | 8.74 | 38.80 | 10.42 | ||
Neither good nor poor | 41.5 | 15.49 | 8.75 | 40.20 | 10.55 | ||
Quite poor | 14.3 | 20.07 | 10.53 | 42.43 | 10.61 | ||
Very poor | 6.1 | 27.58 | 8.53 | 48.95 | 11.00 |
Pair of Variables | Spearman Rank Correlation Test | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Self-Rating of Health Status before the Pandemic | Self-Rating of Change in Health during the Pandemic | |||
R Spearman | p | R Spearman | p | |
Physical health and anxiety | 0.29 | 0.000 | 0.12 | 0.012 |
Physical health and depression | 0.32 | 0.000 | 0.11 | 0.015 |
Physical health and depression + irritability | 0.30 | 0.000 | 0.12 | 0.013 |
Physical health and total HADS-M score | 0.31 | 0.000 | 0.12 | 0.011 |
Physical health and intimate others | 0.20 | 0.000 | 0.12 | 0.008 |
Physical health and social others | 0.20 | 0.000 | 0.05 | 0.295 |
Physical health and belonging and affiliation | 0.20 | 0.000 | 0.09 | 0.065 |
Physical health and total score | 0.23 | 0.000 | 0.10 | 0.031 |
Mental health and anxiety | 0.55 | 0.000 | 0.36 | 0.000 |
Mental health and depression | 0.56 | 0.000 | 0.32 | 0.000 |
Mental health and depression + irritability | 0.56 | 0.000 | 0.30 | 0.000 |
Mental health and total HADS-M score | 0.58 | 0.000 | 0.34 | 0.000 |
Mental health and intimate others | 0.37 | 0.000 | 0.15 | 0.000 |
Mental health and social others | 0.32 | 0.000 | 0.15 | 0.000 |
Mental health and belonging and affiliation | 0.32 | 0.000 | 0.20 | 0.000 |
Mental health and total score | 0.39 | 0.000 | 0.18 | 0.001 |
Parameter | % Yes | HADS-M | R-UCLA | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | Z | p | M | SD | Z | p | ||
Cardiovascular diseases | 2.7 | 16.32 | 11.03 | 0.151 | 0.879 | 40.25 | 11.53 | 0.220 | 0.825 |
Respiratory diseases | 10.5 | 19.67 | 11.17 | 2.153 | 0.024 | 41.81 | 11.25 | 0.890 | 0.373 |
Endocrine diseases | 24.0 | 17.08 | 10.43 | 0.745 | 0.456 | 42.51 | 11.20 | 2.043 | 0.041 |
Cancer | 3.4 | 17.53 | 11.17 | 0.551 | 0.581 | 40.33 | 10.32 | 0.082 | 0.934 |
Kidney disease | 3.9 | 19.23 | 9.58 | 1.486 | 0.137 | 43.58 | 10.45 | 1.295 | 0.194 |
Mental disorders | 5.8 | 27.00 | 9.75 | 5.099 | 0.000 | 48.76 | 10.82 | 3.685 | 0.001 |
None of the above | 49.7 | 17.31 | 10.25 | 2.263 | 0.023 | 41.27 | 10.91 | 1.837 | 0.066 |
Variables | M Yes | M No | SD | t | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anxiety | 7.99 | 7.84 | 4.87 | 0.28 | 0.774 |
Depression | 5.27 | 5.50 | 4.08 | 0.49 | 0.624 |
Depression + irritability | 8.12 | 8.11 | 5.37 | 0.01 | 0.991 |
Total HADS m score | 16.10 | 15.95 | 9.77 | 0.14 | 0.883 |
Intimate others | 21.64 | 22.54 | 6.34 | 1.21 | 0.224 |
Social others | 7.88 | 8.54 | 2.82 | 2.02 | 0.043 |
Belonging and affiliation | 8.82 | 9.72 | 2.91 | 2.88 | 0.004 |
Total R-UCLA score | 38.34 | 40.81 | 10.61 | 2.08 | 0.037 |
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Idzik, A.; Leńczuk-Gruba, A.; Kobos, E.; Pietrzak, M.; Dziedzic, B. Loneliness and Depression among Women in Poland during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010698
Idzik A, Leńczuk-Gruba A, Kobos E, Pietrzak M, Dziedzic B. Loneliness and Depression among Women in Poland during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(20):10698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010698
Chicago/Turabian StyleIdzik(199), Anna, Anna Leńczuk-Gruba, Ewa Kobos, Mariola Pietrzak, and Beata Dziedzic. 2021. "Loneliness and Depression among Women in Poland during the COVID-19 Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 20: 10698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010698