Development and Evaluation of a Screening Scale for Indirect Trauma Caused by Media Exposure to Social Disasters
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Scale Development
2.1.1. Determining Components
2.1.2. Generating Initial Items
2.1.3. Selecting a Response Format
2.1.4. Content Validity
2.1.5. Pretesting
2.2. Scale Validation
2.2.1. Participants and Procedure
2.2.2. Measurements
2.2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.3. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. Participants’ Characteristics
3.2. Evaluation of Scale
3.2.1. Item Analysis
3.2.2. Construct Validity Test
3.2.3. Factor Naming
3.2.4. Reliability Test
3.2.5. Criterion Validity Test
3.3. Differences in SITMES Scores According to Participant’s Characteristics
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Categories | N (%) | Total | Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M ± SD | F(p) | Scheffé | M ± SD | F(p) | Scheffé | M ± SD | F(p) | Scheffé | M ± SD | F(p) | Scheffé | |||
Demographic Characteristics | ||||||||||||||
Age (years) | (1) 19–29 | 82 (22.53) | 2.45 ± 0.84 | 3.62 (0.01) | 4 > 1 | 1.93 ± 0.80 | 4.32 (0.01) | 3, 4 > 1 | 2.55 ± 1.01 | 1.68 (0.17) | 2.88 ± 1.07 | 3.73 (0.01) | 4 > 1 | |
(2) 30–39 | 83 (22.8) | 2.71 ± 0.85 | 2.11 ± 0.93 | 2.85 ± 1.05 | 3.19 ± 0.99 | |||||||||
(3) 40–49 | 98 (26.92) | 2.75 ± 0.88 | 2.29 ± 0.93 | 2.79 ± 1.02 | 3.16 ± 0.98 | |||||||||
(4) 50–59 | 101 (27.75) | 2.84 ± 0.71 | 2.34 ± 0.76 | 2.84 ± 0.93 | 3.35 ± 0.76 | |||||||||
Gender | (1) Male | 188 (51.65) | 2.67 ± 0.87 | 0.59 (0.45) | 2.21 ± 0.93 | 0.33 (0.57) | 2.72 ± 1.02 | 0.57 (0.45) | 3.07 ± 0.96 | 2.96 (0.09) | ||||
(2) Female | 176 (48.35) | 2.73 ± 0.79 | 2.15 ± 0.81 | 2.80 ± 0.99 | 3.24 ± 0.96 | |||||||||
Education | (1) Elementary or less | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 1.00 (0.40) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 1.03 (0.38) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 1.19 (0.31) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 1.10 (0.35) | ||||
(2) Middle school | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | |||||||||
(3) High school | 47 (12.91) | 2.61 ± 0.95 | 2.25 ± 1.00 | 2.58 ± 1.04 | 3.00 ± 1.03 | |||||||||
(4) Attending college or university | 41 (11.26) | 2.53 ± 0.87 | 2.01 ± 0.84 | 2.59 ± 0.98 | 2.99 ± 1.13 | |||||||||
(5) College graduation | 237 (65.11) | 2.75 ± 0.81 | 2.22 ± 0.84 | 2.81 ± 1.00 | 3.21 ± 0.92 | |||||||||
(6) Graduate school | 39 (10.71) | 2.70 ± 0.78 | 2.06 ± 0.91 | 2.85 ± 1.02 | 3.18 ± 0.89 | |||||||||
Monthly income (KRW) | (1) Less than 1 million | 43 (11.81) | 2.42 ± 0.99 | 1.83 (0.12) | 1.89 ± 0.97 | 2.57 (0.04) | 2.64 ± 1.17 | 0.36 (0.84) | 2.74 ± 1.18 | 2.61 (0.04) | ||||
(2) 1 million–less than 3 million | 130 (35.71) | 2.71 ± 0.79 | 2.14 ± 0.80 | 2.79 ± 1.00 | 3.22 ± 0.93 | |||||||||
(3) 3 million–less than 6 million | 155 (42.58) | 2.75 ± 0.82 | 2.27 ± 0.89 | 2.77 ± 0.97 | 3.19 ± 0.92 | |||||||||
(4) 6 million–less than 8 million | 22 (6.05) | 2.91 ± 0.77 | 2.48 ± 0.85 | 2.88 ± 0.90 | 3.39 ± 0.79 | |||||||||
(5) More than 8 million | 14 (3.85) | 2.54 ± 0.82 | 2.00 ± 0.78 | 2.59 ± 1.07 | 3.04 ± 0.99 | |||||||||
Cohabitant | (1) Living alone | 48 (13.19) | 2.56 ± 0.90 | 1.30 (0.27) | 2.07 ± 0.93 | 1.03 (0.36) | 2.68 ± 1.07 | 0.17 (0.84) | 2.93 ± 1.07 | 2.79 (0.06) | ||||
(2) Living with family | 308 (84.62) | 2.73 ± 0.82 | 2.21 ± 0.86 | 2.77 ± 1.00 | 3.20 ± 0.94 | |||||||||
(3) Living with friend(s) | 8 (2.2) | 2.42 ± 0.71 | 1.88 ± 0.97 | 2.73 ± 1.10 | 2.66 ± 0.78 | |||||||||
Occupation | (1) Self-employed | 34 (9.34) | 2.73 ± 0.71 | 1.22 (0.30) | 2.24 ± 0.77 | 1.30 (0.27) | 2.75 ± 0.79 | 0.39 (0.82) | 3.21 ± 0.91 | 1.56 (0.19) | ||||
(2) Wage worker | 232 (63.74) | 2.72 ± 0.82 | 2.20 ± 0.86 | 2.77 ± 1.00 | 3.18 ± 0.92 | |||||||||
(3) Student | 37 (10.16) | 2.44 ± 0.85 | 1.89 ± 0.83 | 2.59 ± 1.01 | 2.84 ± 1.14 | |||||||||
(4) Housewife | 38 (10.44) | 2.84 ± 0.88 | 2.30 ± 0.93 | 2.88 ± 1.14 | 3.34 ± 0.97 | |||||||||
(5) Unemployed | 23 (6.32) | 2.66 ± 1.00 | 2.19 ± 1.01 | 2.78 ± 1.16 | 3.02 ± 1.04 | |||||||||
Information of exposure to social disaster | ||||||||||||||
The most recent incident as Social disaster through the media | (1) Infectious disease/viral infection | 176 (48.35) | 2.89 ± 0.76 | 5.35 (<0.01) | 1 > 2 | 2.34 ± 0.85 | 4.21 (<0.01) | 1 > 2 | 2.97 ± 0.93 | 4.36 (<0.01) | 1 > 2 | 3.36 ± 0.87 | 4.45 (<0.01) | 1 > 2 |
(2) Traffic accidents/aviation accidents/marine accidents | 137 (37.64) | 2.50 ± 0.86 | 1.98 ± 0.82 | 2.55 ± 1.07 | 2.98 ± 1.01 | |||||||||
(3) Nuclear accident/industrial disaster/toxic substance accident/hydrogen explosion/gas explosion | 13 (3.57) | 2.83 ± 0.95 | 2.38 ± 1.14 | 2.89 ± 0.93 | 3.21 ± 0.97 | |||||||||
(4) Terror/bombing/violence | 6 (1.65) | 2.62 ± 0.74 | 2.49 ± 0.81 | 2.70 ± 0.76 | 2.67 ± 0.86 | |||||||||
(5) Fire/building collapse | 32 (8.79) | 2.45 ± 0.84 | 2.02 ± 0.88 | 2.46 ± 0.95 | 2.85 ± 1.03 | |||||||||
Elapsed period since exposure of the incident | (1) Less than 1 month | 224 (61.54) | 2.63 ± 0.81 | 1.15 (0.34) | 2.17 ± 0.84 | 0.34 (0.89) | 2.63 ± 0.97 | 3.31 (0.01) | 6 > 1 | 3.10 ± 0.94 | 0.97 (0.44) | |||
(2) 1 month–less than 3 months | 93 (25.55) | 2.79 ± 0.83 | 2.16 ± 0.89 | 2.92 ± 1.00 | 3.31 ± 0.96 | |||||||||
(3) 3 months–less than 6 months | 7 (1.92) | 2.78 ± 0.58 | 2.46 ± 0.69 | 2.57 ± 0.69 | 3.32 ± 0.66 | |||||||||
(4) 6 months–less than 3 years | 13 (3.57) | 2.58 ± 0.77 | 2.06 ± 0.81 | 2.80 ± 0.70 | 2.87 ± 1.11 | |||||||||
(5) 3 years–less than 5 years | 7 (1.92) | 2.78 ± 1.29 | 2.11 ± 1.32 | 3.20 ± 1.59 | 3.04 ± 1.22 | |||||||||
(6) More than 5 years | 20 (5.49) | 3.00 ± 0.96 | 2.34 ± 1.03 | 3.41 ± 1.15 | 3.26 ± 1.07 | |||||||||
Amount of media usage to obtain information the incident | (1) Significantly shorter (than usual) | 38 (10.44) | 2.04 ± 0.82 | 20.03 (<0.01) | 5 > 1–4 4 > 1, 3 3 > 1 2 > 1 | 1.60 ± 0.78 | 10.26 (<0.01) | 5 > 1–3 4, 3 > 1 | 2.03 ± 0.91 | 18.01 (<0.01) | 5 > 1–4 4 > 1 | 2.49 ± 1.12 | 19.29 (<0.01) | 5 > 1–4 4 > 1, 3 2 > 1 |
(2) Slightly shorter (than usual) | 47 (12.91) | 2.57 ± 0.88 | 1.95 ± 0.91 | 2.63 ± 1.12 | 3.12 ± 1.00 | |||||||||
(3) Similar (as usual) | 107 (29.40) | 2.52 ± 0.74 | 2.12 ± 0.79 | 2.54 ± 0.85 | 2.90 ± 0.88 | |||||||||
(4) Slightly longer (than usual) | 123 (33.79) | 2.84 ± 0.69 | 2.33 ± 0.76 | 2.91 ± 0.88 | 3.28 ± 0.81 | |||||||||
(5) Significantly longer (than usual) | 49 (13.46) | 3.38 ± 0.77 | 2.63 ± 1.02 | 3.57 ± 0.97 | 3.93 ± 0.72 | |||||||||
Other psychological difficulties before exposure of the incident | (1) Yes | 89 (24.45) | 3.07 ± 0.71 | 24.68 (<0.01) | 2.52 ± 0.84 | 19.23 (<0.01) | 3.14 ± 0.95 | 4.21 (<0.01) | 3.54 ± 0.73 | 5.16 (<0.01) | ||||
(2) No | 275 (75.55) | 2.58 ± 0.83 | 2.07 ± 0.85 | 2.64 ± 0.99 | 3.03 ± 0.99 |
No. | Items | Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 |
---|---|---|---|---|
3 | I used to dream about the incident. | 0.77 | ||
5 | After the incident, I felt lonely, as if I was alone in the world. | 0.77 | ||
7 | After the incident, it has become difficult for me to concentrate on everyday tasks, such as reading a newspaper or watching TV. | 0.80 | ||
8 | I started to avoid news or conversations related to the incident because I do not want to gain more information about it. | 0.72 | ||
9 | The incident made me suffer even more as I recalled past traumatic experiences. | 0.80 | ||
10 | After that incident, I have not been able to sleep. | 0.91 | ||
11 | When I thought of the incident, symptoms such as dizziness, difficulty breathing, cold sweat, and body stiffness occurred. | 0.92 | ||
12 | After the incident, I lost my appetite. | 0.88 | ||
21 | I drank to forget my feelings about the incident. | 0.80 | ||
23 | I tried not to believe the incident happened. | 0.55 | ||
24 | I worked or performed other activities to forget my feelings about the incident. | 0.77 | ||
33 | My family members hate when I talk about the incident. | 0.75 | ||
35 | There was no one with whom I could share my feelings about the incident. | 0.70 | ||
38 | After the incident, I was disappointed in those who were supposed to support me. | 0.80 | ||
39 | After the incident, I tried to be alone rather than around other people. | 0.64 | ||
16 | I was upset when I recalled things or people related to the incident. | 0.58 | ||
18 | I felt skeptical that the incident took place due to widespread irresponsibility in society. | 0.75 | ||
19 | Because of the incident, I felt that the world was unjust. | 0.92 | ||
20 | When I thought about the incident, I felt resentment and indignation. | 0.72 | ||
22 | 1 expressed negative feelings about the incident. | 0.48 | ||
1 | When I thought about the incident, I felt emotions such as depression, sadness, and fear. | 0.67 | ||
2 | I used to have unwanted painful thoughts or images about the incident. | 0.66 | ||
13 | I thought that something similar to the incident might happen to me or someone close to me. | 0.62 | ||
14 | I became wary of situations, objects, and people similar to the incident. | 0.49 | ||
Eigenvalues | 13.08 | 2.26 | 0.96 | |
Explained proportion (%) | 52.92 | 7.85 | 2.55 | |
Cumulative proportion (%) | 52.92 | 60.77 | 63.31 |
Factor | No. of Item | Corrected Item-Total Correlation | Cronbach’s Alpha for Deleted Item | Total Cronbach’s Alpha |
---|---|---|---|---|
Factor 1: psychological, physical, and behavioral responses to social disasters | 3 | 0.76 | 0.96 | 0.96 |
5 | 0.81 | 0.96 | ||
7 | 0.83 | 0.96 | ||
8 | 0.75 | 0.96 | ||
9 | 0.79 | 0.96 | ||
10 | 0.83 | 0.96 | ||
11 | 0.84 | 0.96 | ||
12 | 0.84 | 0.96 | ||
21 | 0.77 | 0.96 | ||
23 | 0.69 | 0.96 | ||
24 | 0.82 | 0.96 | ||
33 | 0.76 | 0.96 | ||
35 | 0.69 | 0.96 | ||
38 | 0.79 | 0.96 | ||
39 | 0.71 | 0.96 | ||
Factor 2: moral resentment due to social disasters | 16 | 0.71 | 0.87 | 0.89 |
18 | 0.74 | 0.86 | ||
19 | 0.78 | 0.86 | ||
20 | 0.79 | 0.86 | ||
22 | 0.65 | 0.89 | ||
Factor 3: a sense of threat to life due to social disasters | 1 | 0.71 | 0.80 | 0.85 |
2 | 0.72 | 0.80 | ||
13 | 0.67 | 0.82 | ||
14 | 0.67 | 0.82 | ||
Overall: Screening scale for Indirect Trauma caused by Media Exposure to Social disaster (SITMES) | 0.96 |
Variables | SITMES | F1 | F2 | F3 |
---|---|---|---|---|
IES-R-K | 0.69 * | 0.76 * | 0.57 * | 0.51 * |
K-CD-RISC | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.06 |
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Choi, E.Y.; Choi, S.-H.; Lee, H. Development and Evaluation of a Screening Scale for Indirect Trauma Caused by Media Exposure to Social Disasters. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020698
Choi EY, Choi S-H, Lee H. Development and Evaluation of a Screening Scale for Indirect Trauma Caused by Media Exposure to Social Disasters. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(2):698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020698
Chicago/Turabian StyleChoi, Eun Young, Seung-Hye Choi, and Haeyoung Lee. 2021. "Development and Evaluation of a Screening Scale for Indirect Trauma Caused by Media Exposure to Social Disasters" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 2: 698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020698