Anthropometric Status, Diet, and Dental Caries among Schoolchildren
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Questionnaire Survey
2.3. Oral Health Examinations
2.4. Anthropometric Measurements
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Characteristics and Dental Caries Experience of Participants
3.2. Food Intake Frequency and Dental Caries
3.3. Correlation of Anthropometric Measures and Caries Scores
3.4. Relationship of Weight Status with Important Factors
3.5. Adjusted Associations between Weight Status and Caries Index Scores
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Primary Teeth | Permanent Teeth | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | N | Deft = 0 n (%) | Deft ≥ 1 n (%) | Deft Score Mean ± SD | DMFT = 0 n (%) | DMFT ≥ 1 n (%) | DMFT Score Mean ± SD |
All children | 569 | 210 (36.9) | 359 (63.1) | 2.3 ± 2.6 | 389 (68.4) | 180 (31.6) | 0.7 ± 1.2 |
Gender | |||||||
Boys | 283 | 98 (34.6) | 185 (65.4) | 2.4 ± 2.7 | 206 (72.8) | 77 (27.2) a,* | 0.6 ± 1.2 b,* |
Girls | 286 | 112 (39.2) | 174 (60.8) | 2.2 ± 2.4 | 183 (64.0) | 103 (36.0) | 0.7 ± 1.2 |
Age group | |||||||
6–8 yrs | 261 | 43 (16.5) | 218 (83.5) a,*** | 3.6 ± 2.8 b,*** | 222 (85.1) | 39 (14.9) a,*** | 0.2 ± 0.6 b,*** |
9–12 yrs | 308 | 167 (54.2) | 141 (45.8) | 1.2 ± 1.7 | 167 (54.2) | 141 (45.8) | 1.0 ± 1.5 |
Area of school | |||||||
Urban | 124 | 48 (38.7) | 76 (61.3) | 2.1 ± 2.3 | 78 (62.9) | 46 (37.1) | 0.8 ± 1.6 |
Sub-urban | 213 | 89 (41.8) | 124 (58.2) | 2.1 ± 2.5 | 143 (67.1) | 70 (32.9) | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
Rural | 232 | 73 (31.5) | 159 (68.5) | 2.6 ± 2.8 | 168 (72.4) | 64 (27.6) | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
Father’s education level | |||||||
Less than high school | 64 | 17 (26.6) | 47 (73.4) | 2.9 ± 2.6 c,* | 35 (54.7) | 29 (45.3) a,* | 1.1 ± 1.8 c,* |
High school | 229 | 92 (40.2) | 137 (59.8) | 2.3 ± 2.8 | 156 (68.1) | 73 (31.9) | 0.7 ± 1.1 |
College and above | 270 | 101 (37.4) | 169 (62.6) | 2.1 ± 2.4 | 195 (72.2) | 75 (27.8) | 0.5 ± 1.1 |
Mother’s education level | |||||||
Less than high school | 51 | 16 (31.3) | 35 (68.6) | 2.9 ± 2.8 | 27 (52.9) | 24 (47.1) a,* | 0.9 ± 1.3 c,* |
High school | 193 | 72 (37.3) | 121 (62.7) | 2.4 ± 2.7 | 127 (65.8) | 66 (34.2) | 0.8 ± 1.4 |
College and above | 313 | 116 (37.7) | 197 (62.9) | 2.1 ± 2.4 | 226 (72.2) | 87 (27.8) | 0.5 ± 1.1 |
Medical history and activity | |||||||
History of allergic rhinitis | |||||||
Yes | 119 | 50 (42.0) | 69 (58.0) | 2.0 ± 2.6 | 80 (67.2) | 39 (32.8) | 0.8 ± 1.3 |
No | 441 | 157 (35.6) | 284 (64.4) | 2.4 ± 2.6 | 302 (68.5) | 139 (31.5) | 0.6 ± 1.2 |
Physical activity | |||||||
High | 149 | 54 (36.2) | 95 (63.8) | 2.5 ± 2.8 | 105 (70.5) | 44 (29.5) | 0.5 ± 0.9 |
Moderate | 345 | 125 (36.2) | 220 (63.8) | 2.3 ± 2.5 | 233 (67.5) | 112 (32.5) | 0.7 ± 1.3 |
Low | 73 | 29 (39.7) | 44 (60.3) | 2.0 ± 2.4 | 50 (68.5) | 23 (31.5) | 0.7 ± 1.3 |
Oral hygiene habit | |||||||
Frequency of tooth-brushing | |||||||
<=1 time/day | 96 | 30 (31.3) | 66 (68.7) | 2.7 ± 2.8 | 73 (76.0) | 23 (24.0) | 0.6 ± 1.4 |
2 times/day | 308 | 113 (36.7) | 195 (63.3) | 2.3 ± 2.5 | 213 (69.2) | 95 (30.8) | 0.6 ± 1.2 |
>=3 times/day | 163 | 65 (39.9) | 98 (60.1) | 2.1 ± 2.6 | 103 (63.2) | 60 (36.8) | 0.7 ± 1.1 |
Floss daily | |||||||
Yes | 332 | 126 (38.0) | 206 (62.0) | 2.2 ± 2.5 | 217 (65.4) | 115 (34.6) | 0.7 ± 1.1 |
No | 234 | 82 (35.0) | 152 (65.0) | 2.6 ± 2.8 | 171 (73.1) | 63 (26.9) | 0.6 ± 1.3 |
Dental visit in 6 months | |||||||
Yes | 368 | 109 (29.6) | 259 (70.4) a,*** | 2.6 ± 2.7 b,*** | 254 (69.0) | 114 (31.0) | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
No | 195 | 98 (50.3) | 97 (49.7) | 1.7 ± 2.4 | 131 (67.2) | 64 (32.8) | 0.7 ± 1.4 |
Fluoride usage | |||||||
Use fluoride toothpaste daily | |||||||
Yes | 407 | 149 (36.6) | 258 (63.4) | 2.3 ± 2.5 | 280 (68.8) | 127 (31.2) | 0.6 ± 1.2 |
No | 152 | 56 (36.8) | 96 (63.2) | 2.5 ± 2.9 | 105 (69.1) | 47 (30.9) | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
Used fluoride varnish | |||||||
Yes | 517 | 188 (36.4) | 329 (63.6) | 2.3 ± 2.6 | 357 (69.1) | 160 (30.9) | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
No/don’t remember | 48 | 19 (39.6) | 29 (60.4) | 2.3 ± 2.8 | 30 (62.5) | 18 (37.5) | 1.1 ± 2.1 |
Participated in school fluoride mouthrinse program | |||||||
Yes | 449 | 176 (39.2) | 273 (60.8) a,* | 2.1 ± 2.5 b,** | 304 (67.7) | 145 (32.3) | 0.6 ± 1.2 |
No | 107 | 29 (27.1) | 78 (72.9) | 3.0 ± 2.9 | 78 (72.9) | 29 (27.1) | 0.6 ± 1.2 |
Food Items | N | Deft Score | DMFT Score |
---|---|---|---|
Fruit juice | |||
G1: <1 time/month | 289 | 2.1 ± 2.5 a,* | 0.7 ± 1.3 |
G2: 1–3 times/month | 127 | 2.3 ± 2.4 | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
G3: 1–6 times/week | 91 | 3.2 ± 3.2 | 0.6 ± 1.2 |
G4: >=1 time/day | 55 | 2.1 ± 2.6 | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
#: G3 > G1 | |||
Yakult & other yogurt drinks | |||
G1: <1 time/month | 190 | 2.0 ± 2.5 ** | 0.8 ± 1.4 |
G2: 1–3 times/month | 210 | 2.2 ± 2.5 | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
G3: 1–6 times/week | 123 | 2.9 ± 2.7 | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
G4: >=1 time/day | 42 | 2.3 ± 2.9 | 0.5 ± 1.0 |
#: G3 > G1, 2 | |||
Fast food | |||
G1: <1 time/month | 145 | 2.4 ± 2.6 | 0.8 ± 1.3 * |
G2: 1–3 times/month | 265 | 2.3 ± 2.6 | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
G3: 1–6 times/week | 133 | 2.2 ± 2.6 | 0.5 ± 1.0 |
G4: >=1 time/day | 20 | 2.4 ± 2.6 | 1.4 ± 2.5 |
Candy & chocolate | |||
G1: <1 time/month | 87 | 1.7 ± 2.1 * | 1.0 ± 1.7 * |
G2: 1–3 times/month | 187 | 2.4 ± 2.9 | 0.6 ± 1.2 |
G3: 1–6 times/week | 228 | 2.6 ± 2.5 | 0.5 ± 1.0 |
G4: >=1 time/day | 62 | 2.0 ± 2.5 | 0.8 ± 1.3 |
#: G3 > G1 | #: G3 < G1 | ||
Cake, bread & cookies | |||
G1: <1 time/month | 55 | 1.6 ± 2.7 * | 1.0 ± 1.5 |
G2: 1–3 times/month | 130 | 2.4 ± 2.5 | 0.6 ± 1.4 |
G3: 1–6 times/week | 288 | 2.4 ± 2.5 | 0.6 ± 1.1 |
G4: >=1 time/day | 92 | 2.5 ± 2.8 | 0.7 ± 1.1 |
#: G3 > G1 | |||
Sugary drinks, e.g., milk tea | |||
G1: <1 time/month | 172 | 1.9 ± 2.4 * | 0.7 ± 1.1 |
G2: 1–3 times/month | 205 | 2.5 ± 2.6 | 0.7 ± 1.4 |
G3: 1–6 times/week | 150 | 2.5 ± 2.7 | 0.5 ± 1.1 |
G4: >=1 time/day | 35 | 2.2 ± 2.9 | 0.9 ± 1.4 |
#: G2, G3 > G1 | |||
Soft drinks | |||
G1: <1 time/month | 311 | 2.3 ± 2.6 | 0.6 ± 1.2 |
G2: 1–3 times/month | 175 | 2.2 ± 2.6 | 0.7 ± 1.3 |
G3: 1–6 times/week | 64 | 2.3 ± 2.6 | 0.8 ± 1.4 |
G4: >=1 time/day | 13 | 2.9 ± 3.1 | 0.5 ± 0.9 |
Variables | Age | BMI-Z-Score | Deft | DMFT |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 1 a | 0.04 a | −0.54 *** | 0.37 *** |
BMI-z-score | 0.04 | 1 | −0.07 | 0.05 |
Number of primary teeth | −0.86 *** | −0.12 ** | 0.59 *** | −0.38 *** |
Number of permanent teeth | 0.89 *** | 0.13 ** | −0.60 *** | 0.38 *** |
Height (cm) | 0.88 *** | 0.23 *** | −0.51 *** | 0.32 *** |
Weight (kg) | 0.72 *** | 0.65 *** | −0.44 *** | 0.29 *** |
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.36 *** | 0.94 *** | −0.25 *** | 0.17 *** |
Body fat (%) | 0.26 *** | 0.87 *** | −0.19 *** | 0.14 ** |
Waist circumference (cm) | 0.39 *** | 0.78 *** | −0.28 *** | 0.15 *** |
Upper arm circumference (cm) | 0.47 *** | 0.82 *** | −0.31 *** | 0.22 *** |
Triceps skinfold (mm) | 0.25 *** | 0.77 *** | −0.20 *** | 0.12 ** |
Weight Status | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | N | Normal/Underweight | Overweight | Obese |
All children | 569 | 361 (63.4) a | 105 (18.5) | 103 (18.1) |
Age group | ||||
6–8 year | 261 | 176 (67.4) | 41 (15.7) | 44 (16.9) |
9–12 year | 308 | 185 (60.1) | 64 (20.8) | 59 (19.2) |
Gender | ||||
Boys | 283 | 161 (56.9) | 46 (16.2) | 76 (26.9) b,*** |
Girls | 286 | 200 (69.9) | 59 (20.6) | 27 (9.4) |
Father’s education level | ||||
Less than high school | 64 | 33 (51.6) | 13 (20.3) | 18 (28.1) b,* |
High school | 229 | 135 (59.0) | 46 (20.1) | 48 (20.9) |
College and above | 270 | 188 (69.6) | 45 (16.6) | 37 (13.7) |
Mother’s education level | ||||
Less than high school | 51 | 25 (49.0) | 9 (17.7) | 17 (33.3) b,** |
High school | 193 | 128 (66.3) | 27 (14.0) | 38 (19.7) |
College and above | 313 | 200 (63.9) | 67 (21.4) | 46 (14.7) |
Frequency of tooth-brushing | ||||
<=1 time/day | 96 | 59 (61.5) | 15 (15.6) | 22 (22.9) b,* |
2 times/day | 308 | 206 (66.9) | 48 (15.6) | 54 (17.5) |
>=3 times/day | 163 | 95 (58.3) | 42 (25.8) | 26 (15.9) |
Caries experience | ||||
Primary teeth | ||||
Yes (deft ≥ 1) | 359 | 243 (67.6) | 61 (16.9) | 55 (15.3) b,* |
No (deft = 0) | 210 | 118 (56.1) | 44 (20.9) | 48 (22.8) |
deft score | 569 | 2.5 ± 2.7 | 2.1 ± 2.4 | 1.8 ± 2.3 c,* |
Permanent teeth | ||||
Yes (DMFT ≥ 1) | 180 | 110 (61.1) | 38 (21.1) | 32 (17.7) |
No (DMFT = 0) | 389 | 251 (64.5) | 67 (17.2) | 71 (18.2) |
DMFT score | 569 | 0.6 ± 1.2 | 0.8 ± 1.3 | 0.7 ± 1.2 |
Number of teeth | ||||
Primary teeth | 569 | 8.6 ± 6.0 | 7.1 ± 5.9 | 6.9 ± 5.6 c,** |
Permanent teeth | 569 | 14.7 ± 7.3 | 17.1 ± 7.2 | 16.7 ± 6.8 c,** |
Medical history and activity | ||||
History of allergic rhinitis | ||||
Yes | 119 | 75 (63.0) | 23 (19.3) | 21 (17.7) |
No | 441 | 280 (63.5) | 81 (18.4) | 80 (18.1) |
Physical activity | ||||
High | 149 | 109 (73.2) | 25 (16.8) | 15 (10.0) b,** |
Moderate | 345 | 214 (62.0) | 66 (19.1) | 65 (18.8) |
Low | 73 | 37 (50.7) | 13 (17.8) | 23 (31.5) |
Food intake frequency | ||||
Fruit juice | ||||
<1 time/month | 289 | 174 (60.2) | 59 (20.4) | 56 (19.3) |
1–3 times/month | 127 | 87 (68.5) | 23 (18.1) | 17 (13.3) |
1–6 times/week | 91 | 62 (68.1) | 15 (16.4) | 14 (15.3) |
>=1 time/day | 55 | 33 (60) | 8 (14.5) | 14 (25.4) |
Yakult & other yogurt drinks | ||||
<1 time/month | 190 | 121 (63.6) | 33 (17.3) | 36 (18.9) |
1–3 times/month | 210 | 129 (61.4) | 45 (21.4) | 36 (17.1) |
1–6 times/week | 123 | 79 (64.2) | 24 (19.5) | 20 (16.2) |
>=1 time/day | 42 | 30 (71.4) | 3 (7.14) | 9 (21.4) |
Fast food | ||||
<1 time/month | 145 | 96 (66.2) | 24 (16.6) | 25 (17.2) |
1–3 times/month | 265 | 166 (62.6) | 51 (19.2) | 48 (18.1) |
1–6 times/week | 133 | 83 (62.4) | 25 (18.8) | 25 (18.8) |
>=1 time/day | 20 | 12 (60.0) | 4 (20.0) | 4 (20.0) |
Candy & chocolate | ||||
<1 time/month | 87 | 54 (62.1) | 18 (20.7) | 15 (17.2) |
1–3 times/month | 187 | 107 (57.2) | 43 (23.0) | 37 (19.8) |
1–6 times/week | 228 | 159 (69.7) | 31 (13.6) | 38 (16.7) |
>=1 time/day | 62 | 38 (61.3) | 13 (21.0) | 11 (17.7) |
Cake, bread & cookies | ||||
<1 time/month | 55 | 31 (56.3) | 10 (18.1) | 14 (25.4) |
1–3 times/month | 130 | 77 (59.2) | 29 (22.3) | 24 (18.4) |
1–6 times/week | 288 | 187 (64.9) | 51 (17.7) | 50 (17.3) |
>=1 time/day | 92 | 63 (68.4) | 15 (16.3) | 14 (15.2) |
Sugary drinks | ||||
<1 time/month | 172 | 114 (66.3) | 35 (20.3) | 23 (13.4) |
1–3 times/month | 205 | 133 (64.9) | 31 (15.1) | 41 (20.0) |
1–6 times/week | 150 | 86 (57.3) | 35 (23.3) | 29 (19.3) |
>=1 time/day | 35 | 24 (68.5) | 3 (8.6) | 8 (22.9) |
Dependent Variable | Independent Variable | Unadjusted OR a (95% CI) | Adjusted OR b (95% CI) | Adjusted OR c (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
deft | Weight status | |||
Normal/underweight | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Overweight | 0.82 (0.62–1.08) | 0.92 (0.72–1.17) | 0.94 (0.74–1.20) | |
Obese | 0.70 (0.52–0.93) * | 0.66 (0.51–0.85) ** | 0.81 (0.63–1.05) | |
DMFT | Weight status | |||
Normal/underweight | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Overweight | 1.40 (0.92–2.13) | 1.38 (0.94–2.04) | 1.30 (0.89–1.91) | |
Obese | 1.09 (0.70–1.68) | 1.14 (0.76–1.72) | 0.92 (0.61–1.39) |
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Yen, C.-E.; Lin, Y.-Y.; Hu, S.-W. Anthropometric Status, Diet, and Dental Caries among Schoolchildren. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7027. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18137027
Yen C-E, Lin Y-Y, Hu S-W. Anthropometric Status, Diet, and Dental Caries among Schoolchildren. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(13):7027. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18137027
Chicago/Turabian StyleYen, Chin-En, Yuh-Yih Lin, and Suh-Woan Hu. 2021. "Anthropometric Status, Diet, and Dental Caries among Schoolchildren" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 13: 7027. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18137027