Positive Mental Health of Finnish People Living Alone: The Role of Circumstantial Factors and Leisure-Time Activities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (1)
- Which leisure-time activities are associated with positive mental health of people living alone (paths A)?
- (2)
- Which circumstantial factors are associated with participation in different leisure-time activities (paths B)?
- (3)
- Which circumstantial factors are associated with positive mental health of people living alone directly (C), indirectly via leisure activities (A × B), or as their combination (C + A × B)?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Outcome
2.2.2. Leisure-Time Activities
2.2.3. Circumstantial Factors
2.2.4. Demographic Covariates
2.3. Analytical Approach
2.4. Sensitivity Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Model Fit
3.2. Research Question 1: Paths from Leisure-Time Activities to Positive Mental Health
3.3. Research Question 2: Paths from Circumstantial Factors to Leisure-Time Activities
3.4. Research Question 3: Direct and Indirect Paths from Circumstantial Factors to Positive Mental Health
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Findings
4.2. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | WEMWBS_1 | 0.73 | 0.60 | 0.42 | 0.69 | 0.53 | 0.51 | 0.71 | 0.46 | 0.58 | 0.48 | 0.53 | 0.54 | 0.63 | 0.09 | 0.16 | 0.22 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.15 | |
2 | WEMWBS_2 | 0.08 | 0.53 | 0.46 | 0.66 | 0.53 | 0.55 | 0.72 | 0.44 | 0.62 | 0.54 | 0.56 | 0.47 | 0.58 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.24 | 0.16 | 0.23 | |
3 | WEMWBS_3 | 0.04 | −0.02 | 0.61 | 0.44 | 0.49 | 0.55 | 0.37 | 0.51 | 0.46 | 0.39 | 0.40 | 0.60 | 0.04 | 0.19 | 0.07 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 0.08 | ||
4 | WEMWBS_4 | −0.09 | −0.05 | −0.01 | 0.34 | 0.32 | 0.37 | 0.64 | 0.40 | 0.32 | 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.26 | 0.22 | 0.23 | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.17 | ||
5 | WEMWBS_5 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.49 | 0.54 | 0.69 | 0.46 | 0.59 | 0.44 | 0.45 | 0.58 | 0.60 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.32 | 0.32 | 0.16 | |
6 | WEMWBS_6 | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.02 | −0.08 | −0.04 | 0.63 | 0.60 | 0.34 | 0.53 | 0.52 | 0.33 | 0.42 | 0.44 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.15 | 0.10 | 0.11 | |
7 | WEMWBS_7 | −0.08 | −0.04 | −0.01 | −0.14 | −0.05 | 0.15 | 0.64 | 0.34 | 0.59 | 0.67 | 0.39 | 0.44 | 0.54 | −0.01 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.09 | |
8 | WEMWBS_8 | 0.01 | 0.03 | −0.04 | −0.17 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.42 | 0.75 | 0.54 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.65 | 0.07 | 0.11 | 0.16 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.17 | |
9 | WEMWBS_9 | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.08 | 0.23 | −0.06 | −0.09 | −0.13 | −0.13 | 0.43 | 0.29 | 0.68 | 0.44 | 0.49 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.27 | |
10 | WEMWBS_10 | −0.06 | −0.01 | −0.03 | −0.10 | −0.04 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.07 | −0.08 | 0.61 | 0.49 | 0.47 | 0.64 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.19 | |
11 | WEMWBS_11 | −0.06 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.10 | −0.09 | 0.08 | 0.18 | −0.03 | −0.14 | 0.08 | 0.35 | 0.41 | 0.51 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.12 | |
12 | WEMWBS_12 | −0.02 | 0.00 | −0.08 | 0.09 | −0.10 | −0.13 | −0.12 | −0.10 | 0.24 | −0.05 | −0.12 | 0.47 | 0.53 | 0.11 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.32 | |
13 | WEMWBS_13 | 0.02 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.09 | 0.07 | −0.02 | −0.04 | −0.06 | 0.02 | −0.04 | −0.03 | 0.02 | 0.53 | 0.13 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.20 | 0.16 | 0.08 | |
14 | WEMWBS_14 | 0.01 | −0.04 | 0.07 | 0.02 | −0.01 | −0.07 | −0.02 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.19 | 0.10 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.17 | |
15 | clubs/societies | −0.03 | 0.03 | −0.06 | 0.17 | 0.00 | −0.06 | −0.11 | −0.05 | 0.05 | −0.01 | −0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.24 | 0.27 | 0.18 | 0.07 | 0.11 | |
16 | events | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.03 | −0.06 | 0.04 | −0.05 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.18 | 0.12 | 0.15 | |
17 | church events | 0.07 | 0.02 | −0.06 | 0.11 | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.06 | 0.00 | 0.06 | −0.08 | −0.10 | 0.06 | 0.03 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.16 | 0.06 | 0.10 | |
18 | arts/crafts | 0.02 | 0.05 | −0.02 | −0.02 | 0.13 | 0.00 | −0.04 | 0.00 | −0.09 | −0.05 | −0.03 | −0.07 | 0.06 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.58 | 0.22 | |
19 | PA in nature | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.03 | 0.17 | −0.03 | −0.06 | 0.02 | −0.09 | −0.01 | −0.10 | −0.05 | 0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.07 | |
20 | social contacts | −0.03 | 0.04 | −0.08 | 0.03 | −0.03 | −0.05 | −0.08 | −0.03 | 0.12 | 0.00 | −0.03 | 0.16 | −0.07 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Effect Type | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | (Category) | Total Effect | Total Indirect | Direct |
Owns a dog | 0.16 [−0.04; 0.36] | 0.06 [−0.06; 0.18] | 0.1 [−0.12; 0.31] | |
One close friend vs. | ||||
none | −0.55 [−0.75; −0.34] | −0.16 [−0.27; −0.05] | −0.39 [−0.6; −0.18] | |
two or more | 0.37 [0.21; 0.53] | 0.16 [0.09; 0.23] | 0.21 [0.06; 0.37] | |
Male gender | −0.23 [−0.38; −0.08] | −0.15 [−0.22; −0.08] | −0.08 [−0.23; 0.07] | |
Limitations (GALI) | −0.52 [−0.67; −0.37] | −0.1 [−0.17; −0.02] | −0.43 [−0.57; −0.28] | |
In employment/studying vs. | ||||
Unemployed | −0.05 [−0.32; 0.22] | −0.01 [−0.13; 0.12] | −0.04 [−0.29; 0.21] | |
Retired | 0.19 [−0.06; 0.43] | 0.12 [0.02; 0.22] | 0.07 [−0.16; 0.3] | |
Comprehensive education vs. | ||||
secondary | 0 [−0.2; 0.19] | 0.05 [−0.05; 0.14] | −0.05 [−0.23; 0.14] | |
higher | 0.04 [−0.15; 0.23] | 0.09 [−0.01; 0.18] | −0.05 [−0.23; 0.13] | |
Single vs. | ||||
in a relationship | 0.48 [0.26; 0.69] | 0.1 [0.01; 0.18] | 0.38 [0.18; 0.58] | |
divorced | 0.1 [−0.09; 0.3] | 0 [−0.08; 0.08] | 0.1 [−0.09; 0.29] | |
widowed | 0.23 [0; 0.45] | 0.07 [−0.02; 0.16] | 0.15 [−0.06; 0.37] | |
Age (in 10 years) | 0.04 [−0.02; 0.1] | −0.03 [−0.06; 0] | 0.07 [0.01; 0.13] | |
Age squared | −0.02 [−0.04; 0] | −0.01 [−0.02; 0] | −0.01 [−0.03; 0.01] |
Variable | Est. | s.e. | p | Comparison 1 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Owns a dog | 0.26 | 0.166 | 0.117 | <2, 5, 10 |
2 | No close friends (vs. one) | −0.886 | 0.182 | <0.001 | >1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 |
3 | Two or more close friends (vs. one) | 0.601 | 0.137 | <0.001 | >6, 7, 8, 11 |
4 | Male gender | −0.37 | 0.126 | 0.003 | <2, 5 |
5 | Limitations (in the past 6 months) | −0.847 | 0.138 | <0.001 | >1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 |
6 | Unemployed (vs. employed/studying) | −0.078 | 0.223 | 0.727 | <2, 3, 5, 10 |
7 | Retired (vs. employed/studying) | 0.308 | 0.203 | 0.13 | <2, 5 |
8 | Secondary education (vs. comprehensive) | −0.001 | 0.161 | 0.993 | <2, 3, 5, 10 |
9 | Higher education (vs. comprehensive) | 0.062 | 0.157 | 0.693 | <2, 3, 5, 10 |
10 | In a relationship, married or cohabiting (vs. single) | 0.775 | 0.187 | <0.001 | >1, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12 |
11 | Divorced (vs. single) | 0.164 | 0.161 | 0.308 | <2, 3, 5, 10 |
12 | Widowed (vs. single) | 0.365 | 0.187 | 0.05 | <2, 5, 10 |
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Variable Type | Variable | (Category) | n | % or Mean (SD) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Demographic | Gender (n = 882) | Female | 469 | 53% |
Male | 413 | 47% | ||
Age (n = 884) | 884 | 53.9 (21.1) | ||
Circumstantial | Education (n = 876) | Comprehensive | 186 | 21% |
Upper secondary | 329 | 37% | ||
Higher | 362 | 41% | ||
Employment status (n = 870) | Employed/studying | 435 | 50% | |
Unemployed | 114 | 13% | ||
Retired/other | 321 | 37% | ||
Number of close friends (n = 870) | None | 137 | 16% | |
One | 165 | 19% | ||
Two or more | 569 | 65% | ||
Marital/relationship status (n = 860) | Single | 331 | 39% | |
Divorced | 185 | 21% | ||
Widowed | 141 | 16% | ||
In a relationship/cohabiting/married | 203 | 24% | ||
Owns a dog (n = 869) | 89 | 10% | ||
Limitations in the past 6 months (n = 868) | 371 | 43% | ||
Leisure-time activities | Club or society activities (n = 842) | Every day or most days | 21 | 3% |
1–2 times/week | 114 | 14% | ||
1–2 times/month | 109 | 13% | ||
Yearly | 122 | 14% | ||
Less frequently/never | 476 | 57% | ||
Cultural/sports events (n = 854) | Every day or most days | 6 | 1% | |
1–2 times/week | 35 | 4% | ||
1–2 times/month | 255 | 30% | ||
Yearly | 393 | 46% | ||
Less frequently/never | 165 | 19% | ||
Religious events (n = 847) | Every day or most days | 6 | 1% | |
1–2 times/week | 35 | 4% | ||
1–2 times/month | 54 | 6% | ||
Yearly | 221 | 26% | ||
Less frequently/never | 531 | 63% | ||
Arts/crafts (n = 855) | Every day or most days | 167 | 20% | |
1–2 times/week | 185 | 22% | ||
1–2 times/month | 157 | 18% | ||
Yearly | 162 | 19% | ||
Less frequently/never | 183 | 21% | ||
Physical activity in nature (n = 871) | Every day or most days | 280 | 32% | |
1–2 times/week | 294 | 34% | ||
1–2 times/month | 154 | 18% | ||
Yearly | 81 | 9% | ||
Less frequently/never | 62 | 7% | ||
Contact with friends/relatives (n = 812) | Every day or most days | 508 | 63% | |
1–2 times/week | 224 | 28% | ||
1–2 times/month | 58 | 7% | ||
Less frequently/never | 21 | 2% | ||
Outcome | Positive mental health (WEMWBS score) 1 | 840 | 49.4 (9.7) |
Positive Mental Health | p | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | s.e. | 95% CI | |||
Contact with friends/relatives | 0.17 | 0.045 | [0.08; 0.26] | <0.001 | |
Physical activity in nature | 0.11 | 0.054 | [0.001; 0.21] | 0.048 | |
Cultural/sports events | 0.13 | 0.042 | [0.04; 0.21] | 0.002 | |
Religious events | 0.12 | 0.043 | [0.04; 0.21] | 0.004 | |
Arts/crafts | 0.07 | 0.052 | [−0.03; 0.17] | 0.171 | |
Club/society activities | 0.03 | 0.043 | [−0.05; 0.12] | 0.46 |
Contact with Friends/ Relatives | Physical Activity in Nature | Cultural/Sports Events | Religious Events | Arts/Crafts | Club/Society Activities | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β [95% CI] | β [95% CI] | β [95% CI] | β [95% CI] | β [95% CI] | β [95% CI] | |
Comprehensive education vs. | ||||||
secondary | −0.08 [−0.35; 0.2] | 0.08 [−0.12; 0.28] | 0.24 [0.01; 0.46] | 0.01 [−0.24; 0.27] | 0.06 [−0.15; 0.28] | 0.48 [0.23; 0.73] |
higher | 0.11 [−0.16; 0.38] | −0.08 [−0.27; 0.12] | 0.53 [0.31; 0.74] | −0.13 [−0.37; 0.11] | 0.19 [−0.02; 0.4] | 0.43 [0.19; 0.66] |
Employed/studying vs. | ||||||
unemployed | 0.12 [−0.22; 0.45] | −0.31 [−0.59; −0.04] | −0.45 [−0.73; −0.16] | 0.32 [0; 0.64] | 0.16 [−0.14; 0.46] | 0.4 [0.05; 0.74] |
retired | 0.02 [−0.27; 0.31] | 0.29 [0.03; 0.56] | 0.08 [−0.19; 0.35] | 0.25 [−0.05; 0.55] | 0.42 [0.14; 0.7] | 0.42 [0.11; 0.73] |
One close friend vs. | ||||||
none | −0.59 [−0.85; −0.33] | −0.01 [−0.23; 0.21] | −0.01 [−0.26; 0.23] | −0.37 [−0.64; −0.1] | −0.04 [−0.28; 0.2] | −0.28 [−0.57; 0] |
two or more | 0.39 [0.19; 0.59] | 0.24 [0.07; 0.4] | 0.2 [0.02; 0.37] | 0.16 [−0.04; 0.35] | 0.22 [0.04; 0.4] | 0.19 [−0.02; 0.39] |
Single vs. | ||||||
in a relationship | 0.15 [−0.12; 0.42] | 0.15 [−0.08; 0.38] | 0.18 [−0.06; 0.42] | 0.11 [−0.18; 0.39] | 0.22 [−0.04; 0.48] | 0.14 [−0.15; 0.43] |
divorced | 0.08 [−0.18; 0.33] | 0.03 [−0.18; 0.23] | 0.01 [−0.21; 0.23] | −0.13 [−0.36; 0.09] | −0.02 [−0.24; 0.21] | 0.01 [−0.24; 0.27] |
widowed | 0.27 [−0.03; 0.57] | −0.05 [−0.29; 0.18] | 0.06 [−0.18; 0.3] | 0.13 [−0.14; 0.4] | −0.01 [−0.26; 0.25] | 0.28 [0.01; 0.56] |
Owns a dog | 0.04 [−0.29; 0.36] | 0.9 [0.66; 1.14] | −0.27 [−0.51; −0.02] | −0.31 [−0.59; −0.03] | 0.47 [0.2; 0.73] | −0.02 [−0.31; 0.27] |
Limitations (GALI) | 0 [−0.21; 0.21] | −0.25 [−0.41; −0.08] | −0.29 [−0.47; −0.11] | 0.03 [−0.17; 0.23] | −0.49 [−0.66; −0.31] | −0.03 [−0.24; 0.18] |
Male gender | −0.23 [−0.43; −0.04] | −0.26 [−0.41; −0.1] | −0.22 [−0.39; −0.05] | −0.31 [−0.5; −0.12] | −0.25 [−0.42; −0.07] | −0.03 [−0.22; 0.17] |
Age (in 10 years) | −0.13 [−0.21; −0.05] | 0.01 [−0.06; 0.08] | −0.11 [−0.18; −0.04] | 0.08 [0.01; 0.16] | −0.09 [−0.16; −0.02] | −0.01 [−0.09; 0.08] |
Age squared | 0.04 [0.02; 0.07] | −0.07 [−0.09; −0.05] | −0.03 [−0.05; −0.01] | 0 [−0.03; 0.02] | −0.05 [−0.07; −0.03] | 0.02 [−0.01; 0.04] |
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Pasanen, T.P.; Tamminen, N.; Martelin, T.; Solin, P. Positive Mental Health of Finnish People Living Alone: The Role of Circumstantial Factors and Leisure-Time Activities. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6735. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136735
Pasanen TP, Tamminen N, Martelin T, Solin P. Positive Mental Health of Finnish People Living Alone: The Role of Circumstantial Factors and Leisure-Time Activities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(13):6735. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136735
Chicago/Turabian StylePasanen, Tytti P., Nina Tamminen, Tuija Martelin, and Pia Solin. 2021. "Positive Mental Health of Finnish People Living Alone: The Role of Circumstantial Factors and Leisure-Time Activities" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 13: 6735. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136735
APA StylePasanen, T. P., Tamminen, N., Martelin, T., & Solin, P. (2021). Positive Mental Health of Finnish People Living Alone: The Role of Circumstantial Factors and Leisure-Time Activities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(13), 6735. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136735