Fruit and Vegetable Intake and All-Cause Mortality in a Chinese Population: The China Health and Nutrition Survey
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Data Source
2.2. Measurement
2.2.1. Exposure
2.2.2. Outcome
2.2.3. Covariates
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participants’ Characteristics
3.2. FV Intake and All-Cause Mortality
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Overall | Quintiles of Fruit Intake | Quintiles of Vegetable Intake | Quintiles of Combined FV Intake | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | ||
Number of subjects | 19,542 | 10,444 | 2332 | 2251 | 2245 | 2270 | 3840 | 3891 | 3924 | 3957 | 3930 | 3800 | 3885 | 3934 | 3944 | 3979 |
Age (mean (SD)) | 41.04 (15.37) | 40.87 (16.03) | 40.15 (14.00) | 40.15 (14.56) | 41.61 (14.60) | 43.09 (14.94) | 44.23 (17.27) | 41.79 (15.61) | 40.68 (14.76) | 39.39 (14.29) | 39.22 (14.21) | 44.00 (17.46) | 41.69 (15.66) | 40.06 (14.67) | 39.35 (13.93) | 40.25 (14.52) |
Age group (%) | ||||||||||||||||
18–24 | 2895 (14.8) | 1815 (17.4) | 283 (12.1) | 300 (13.3) | 252 (11.2) | 245 (10.8) | 546 (14.2) | 529 (13.6) | 556 (14.2) | 612 (15.5) | 652 (16.6) | 579 (15.2) | 548 (14.1) | 578 (14.7) | 574 (14.6) | 616 (15.5) |
25–34 | 5073 (26.0) | 2595 (24.8) | 662 (28.4) | 657 (29.2) | 603 (26.9) | 556 (24.5) | 857 (22.3) | 1015 (26.1) | 1033 (26.3) | 1135 (28.7) | 1033 (26.3) | 846 (22.3) | 984 (25.3) | 1111 (28.2) | 1125 (28.5) | 1007 (25.3) |
35–44 | 4182 (21.4) | 2104 (20.1) | 590 (25.3) | 504 (22.4) | 528 (23.5) | 456 (20.1) | 650 (16.9) | 789 (20.3) | 908 (23.1) | 890 (22.5) | 945 (24.0) | 637 (16.8) | 816 (21.0) | 868 (22.1) | 945 (24.0) | 916 (23.0) |
45–54 | 3077 (15.7) | 1525 (14.6) | 380 (16.3) | 365 (16.2) | 367 (16.3) | 440 (19.4) | 608 (15.8) | 592 (15.2) | 619 (15.8) | 611 (15.4) | 647 (16.5) | 551 (14.5) | 587 (15.1) | 619 (15.7) | 646 (16.4) | 674 (16.9) |
55–64 | 2675 (13.7) | 1420 (13.6) | 274 (11.7) | 284 (12.6) | 319 (14.2) | 378 (16.7) | 620 (16.1) | 612 (15.7) | 534 (13.6) | 474 (12.0) | 435 (11.1) | 625 (16.4) | 590 (15.2) | 502 (12.8) | 442 (11.2) | 516 (13.0) |
65+ | 1640 (8.4) | 985 (9.4) | 143 (6.1) | 141 (6.3) | 176 (7.8) | 195 (8.6) | 559 (14.6) | 354 (9.1) | 274 (7.0) | 235 (5.9) | 218 (5.5) | 562 (14.8) | 360 (9.3) | 256 (6.5) | 212 (5.4) | 250 (6.3) |
Sex = female (%) | 10,532 (53.9) | 5353 (51.3) | 1261 (54.1) | 1251 (55.6) | 1288 (57.4) | 1379 (60.7) | 2296 (59.8) | 2174 (55.9) | 2183 (55.6) | 2057 (52.0) | 1822 (46.4) | 2155 (56.7) | 2188 (56.3) | 2141 (54.4) | 2076 (52.6) | 1972 (49.6) |
Body mass index (mean (SD)) | 23.09 (3.42) | 22.78 (3.25) | 22.96 (4.18) | 23.42 (3.23) | 23.62 (3.34) | 23.82 (3.38) | 23.35 (3.69) | 23.05 (3.21) | 23.05 (3.21) | 23.06 (3.13) | 22.86 (3.80) | 23.12 (3.57) | 23.03 (3.23) | 23.06 (3.16) | 23.06 (3.16) | 23.17 (3.84) |
BMI category (%) | ||||||||||||||||
underweight | 904 (4.6) | 599 (5.7) | 93 (4.0) | 65 (2.9) | 73 (3.3) | 74 (3.3) | 225 (5.9) | 153 (3.9) | 169 (4.3) | 168 (4.2) | 189 (4.8) | 236 (6.2) | 177 (4.6) | 151 (3.8) | 167 (4.2) | 173 (4.3) |
normal weight | 11,886 (60.8) | 6642 (63.6) | 1491 (63.9) | 1333 (59.2) | 1223 (54.5) | 1197 (52.7) | 2162 (56.3) | 2349 (60.4) | 2400 (61.2) | 2419 (61.1) | 2556 (65.0) | 2213 (58.2) | 2383 (61.3) | 2450 (62.3) | 2428 (61.6) | 2412 (60.6) |
overweight | 5330 (27.3) | 2546 (24.4) | 614 (26.3) | 672 (29.9) | 732 (32.6) | 766 (33.7) | 1094 (28.5) | 1095 (28.1) | 1079 (27.5) | 1119 (28.3) | 943 (24.0) | 1039 (27.3) | 1052 (27.1) | 1056 (26.8) | 1076 (27.3) | 1107 (27.8) |
obese | 1422 (7.3) | 657 (6.3) | 134 (5.7) | 181 (8.0) | 217 (9.7) | 233 (10.3) | 359 (9.3) | 294 (7.6) | 276 (7.0) | 251 (6.3) | 242 (6.2) | 312 (8.2) | 273 (7.0) | 277 (7.0) | 273 (6.9) | 287 (7.2) |
Education (%) | ||||||||||||||||
Primary or junior high school | 14,235 (72.8) | 8330 (79.8) | 1929 (82.7) | 1598 (71.0) | 1318 (58.7) | 1060 (46.7) | 2429 (63.3) | 2718 (69.9) | 2957 (75.4) | 3001 (75.8) | 3130 (79.6) | 2661 (70.0) | 2907 (74.8) | 2962 (75.3) | 2934 (74.4) | 2771 (69.6) |
High school or equal | 3823 (19.6) | 1656 (15.9) | 340 (14.6) | 505 (22.4) | 612 (27.3) | 710 (31.3) | 904 (23.5) | 842 (21.6) | 716 (18.2) | 749 (18.9) | 612 (15.6) | 782 (20.6) | 727 (18.7) | 730 (18.6) | 769 (19.5) | 815 (20.5) |
College and university | 1484 (7.6) | 458 (4.4) | 63 (2.7) | 148 (6.6) | 315 (14.0) | 500 (22.0) | 507 (13.2) | 331 (8.5) | 251 (6.4) | 207 (5.2) | 188 (4.8) | 357 (9.4) | 251 (6.5) | 242 (6.2) | 241 (6.1) | 393 (9.9) |
Individual average income † | ||||||||||||||||
Q1 | 4884 (25.0) | 3290 (31.5) | 796 (34.1) | 454 (20.2) | 217 (9.7) | 127 (5.6) | 570 (14.8) | 819 (21.0) | 973 (24.8) | 1149 (29.0) | 1373 (34.9) | 730 (19.2) | 971 (25.0) | 1048 (26.6) | 1128 (28.6) | 1007 (25.3) |
Q2 | 4901 (25.1) | 2805 (26.9) | 789 (33.8) | 617 (27.4) | 466 (20.8) | 224 (9.9) | 797 (20.8) | 1006 (25.9) | 1086 (27.7) | 1100 (27.8) | 912 (23.2) | 932 (24.5) | 1078 (27.7) | 1109 (28.2) | 1027 (26.0) | 755 (19.0) |
Q3 | 4757 (24.3) | 2359 (22.6) | 549 (23.5) | 685 (30.4) | 666 (29.7) | 498 (21.9) | 866 (22.6) | 1032 (26.5) | 1085 (27.7) | 959 (24.2) | 815 (20.7) | 901 (23.7) | 981 (25.3) | 1003 (25.5) | 1003 (25.4) | 869 (21.8) |
Q4 | 5000 (25.6) | 1990 (19.1) | 198 (8.5) | 495 (22.0) | 896 (39.9) | 1421 (62.6) | 1607 (41.8) | 1034 (26.6) | 780 (19.9) | 749 (18.9) | 830 (21.1) | 1237 (32.6) | 855 (22.0) | 774 (19.7) | 786 (19.9) | 1348 (33.9) |
Marital status = married (%) | 16,416 (84.0) | 8465 (81.1) | 2050 (87.9) | 1982 (88.0) | 1956 (87.1) | 1963 (86.5) | 3074 (80.1) | 3246 (83.4) | 3375 (86.0) | 3416 (86.3) | 3305 (84.1) | 3015 (79.3) | 3250 (83.7) | 3353 (85.2) | 3401 (86.2) | 3397 (85.4) |
Residence = urban (%) | 11,324 (57.9) | 6910 (66.2) | 1455 (62.4) | 1197 (53.2) | 986 (43.9) | 776 (34.2) | 1953 (50.9) | 2138 (54.9) | 2313 (58.9) | 2425 (61.3) | 2495 (63.5) | 2126 (55.9) | 2314 (59.6) | 2357 (59.9) | 2351 (59.6) | 2176 (54.7) |
Urban index ‡ (mean (SD)) | 58.59 (22.75) | 53.72 (21.97) | 51.11 (19.11) | 59.86 (21.31) | 68.69 (20.44) | 77.44 (19.25) | 66.95 (21.47) | 61.90 (21.64) | 58.31 (21.63) | 54.61 (21.97) | 51.44 (23.66) | 63.00 (21.55) | 58.56 (21.42) | 56.95 (21.93) | 55.30 (22.40) | 59.30 (25.39) |
Smoking status | ||||||||||||||||
Current | 2920 (14.9) | 1537 (14.7) | 201 (8.6) | 337 (15.0) | 405 (18.0) | 440 (19.4) | 684 (17.8) | 610 (15.7) | 507 (12.9) | 537 (13.6) | 582 (14.8) | 674 (17.7) | 543 (14.0) | 517 (13.1) | 515 (13.1) | 671 (16.9) |
Not current (never, past) | 7565 (38.7) | 3433 (32.9) | 491 (21.1) | 887 (39.4) | 1200 (53.5) | 1554 (68.5) | 1966 (51.2) | 1564 (40.2) | 1454 (37.1) | 1364 (34.5) | 1217 (31.0) | 1672 (44.0) | 1406 (36.2) | 1392 (35.4) | 1404 (35.6) | 1691 (42.5) |
Not answered | 9057 (46.3) | 5474 (52.4) | 1640 (70.3) | 1027 (45.6) | 640 (28.5) | 276 (12.2) | 1190 (31.0) | 1717 (44.1) | 1963 (50.0) | 2056 (52.0) | 2131 (54.2) | 1454 (38.3) | 1936 (49.8) | 2025 (51.5) | 2025 (51.3) | 1617 (40.6) |
Alcohol drinking | ||||||||||||||||
Current | 3603 (18.4) | 1735 (16.6) | 232 (9.9) | 432 (19.2) | 549 (24.5) | 655 (28.9) | 871 (22.7) | 731 (18.8) | 664 (16.9) | 643 (16.2) | 694 (17.7) | 785 (20.7) | 659 (17.0) | 648 (16.5) | 648 (16.4) | 863 (21.7) |
Not current (never, past) | 6838 (35.0) | 3211 (30.7) | 456 (19.6) | 788 (35.0) | 1052 (46.9) | 1331 (58.6) | 1778 (46.3) | 1429 (36.7) | 1291 (32.9) | 1249 (31.6) | 1091 (27.8) | 1555 (40.9) | 1284 (33.1) | 1251 (31.8) | 1260 (31.9) | 1488 (37.4) |
Not answered | 9101 (46.6) | 5498 (52.6) | 1644 (70.5) | 1031 (45.8) | 644 (28.7) | 284 (12.5) | 1191 (31.0) | 1731 (44.5) | 1969 (50.2) | 2065 (52.2) | 2145 (54.6) | 1460 (38.4) | 1942 (50.0) | 2035 (51.7) | 2036 (51.6) | 1628 (40.9) |
Physical activity | ||||||||||||||||
Light | 10,273 (52.6) | 4623 (44.3) | 1015 (43.5) | 1307 (58.1) | 1563 (69.6) | 1765 (77.8) | 2701 (70.3) | 2374 (61.0) | 2067 (52.7) | 1731 (43.7) | 1400 (35.6) | 2454 (64.6) | 2166 (55.8) | 1955 (49.7) | 1821 (46.2) | 1877 (47.2) |
Moderate | 3537 (18.1) | 2038 (19.5) | 519 (22.3) | 395 (17.5) | 325 (14.5) | 260 (11.5) | 577 (15.0) | 716 (18.4) | 760 (19.4) | 788 (19.9) | 696 (17.7) | 652 (17.2) | 762 (19.6) | 766 (19.5) | 713 (18.1) | 644 (16.2) |
Heavy | 5732 (29.3) | 3783 (36.2) | 798 (34.2) | 549 (24.4) | 357 (15.9) | 245 (10.8) | 562 (14.6) | 801 (20.6) | 1097 (28.0) | 1438 (36.3) | 1834 (46.7) | 694 (18.3) | 957 (24.6) | 1213 (30.8) | 1410 (35.8) | 1458 (36.6) |
Calorie intake (kcal/day) (mean (SD)) | 2183.09 (1190.61) | 2228.19 (1287.02) | 2229.97 (546.66) | 2129.02 (582.43) | 2071.18 (1356.15) | 2091.75 (1444.66) | 1993.62 (778.84) | 2178.29 (502.93) | 2238.84 (425.09) | 2370.71 (507.87) | 2511.44 (1175.61) | 1925.57 (1147.12) | 2093.93 (616.98) | 2187.04 (619.84) | 2284.93 (597.35) | 2411.24 (2113.77) |
Quintiles a | P for Trend | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | |||||||
Vegetable intake | |||||||||||
Model 1 (crude) | 1 | Reference | 0.52 | (0.44–0.62) | 0.46 | (0.39–0.54) | 0.37 | (0.31–0.44) | 0.46 | (0.39–0.55) | <0.001 |
Model 2 b (age, sex adjusted) | 1 | Reference | 0.71 | (0.60–0.85) | 0.74 | (0.62–0.87) | 0.66 | (0.55–0.79) | 0.93 | (0.79–1.11) | 0.311 |
Model 3 c (adjusted) | 1 | Reference | 0.78 | (0.65,0.93) | 0.75 | (0.63,0.89) | 0.63 | (0.53,0.76) | 0.8 | (0.67,0.96) | 0.234 |
Fruit intake | |||||||||||
Model 1 (crude) | 1 | Reference | 0.35 | (0.29–0.41) | 0.19 | (0.15–0.25) | 0.24 | (0.18–0.31) | 0.13 | (0.08–0.21) | <0.001 |
Model 2 b (age, sex adjusted) | 1 | Reference | 0.34 | (0.29–0.41) | 0.23 | (0.18–0.30) | 0.30 | (0.23–0.39) | 0.13 | (0.08–0.21) | <0.001 |
Model 3 c (adjusted) | 1 | Reference | 0.36 | (0.30–0.43) | 0.28 | (0.22–0.36) | 0.43 | (0.32–0.57) | 0.24 | (0.15–0.40) | <0.001 |
FV intake | |||||||||||
Model 1 (crude) | 1 | Reference | 0.48 | (0.41–0.56) | 0.38 | (0.32–0.44) | 0.29 | (0.25–0.35) | 0.34 | (0.28–0.40) | <0.001 |
Model 2 b (age, sex adjusted) | 1 | Reference | 0.68 | (0.58–0.8) | 0.61 | (0.52–0.72) | 0.56 | (0.47–0.67) | 0.65 | (0.55–0.78) | <0.001 |
Model 3 c (adjusted) | 1 | Reference | 0.71 | (0.61–0.84) | 0.63 | (0.54–0.75) | 0.59 | (0.49–0.70) | 0.70 | (0.58–0.85) | <0.001 |
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Gu, Y.; He, Y.; Ali, S.H.; Harper, K.; Dong, H.; Gittelsohn, J. Fruit and Vegetable Intake and All-Cause Mortality in a Chinese Population: The China Health and Nutrition Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 342. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010342
Gu Y, He Y, Ali SH, Harper K, Dong H, Gittelsohn J. Fruit and Vegetable Intake and All-Cause Mortality in a Chinese Population: The China Health and Nutrition Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(1):342. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010342
Chicago/Turabian StyleGu, Yuxuan, Yansu He, Shahmir H. Ali, Kaitlyn Harper, Hengjin Dong, and Joel Gittelsohn. 2021. "Fruit and Vegetable Intake and All-Cause Mortality in a Chinese Population: The China Health and Nutrition Survey" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 1: 342. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010342
APA StyleGu, Y., He, Y., Ali, S. H., Harper, K., Dong, H., & Gittelsohn, J. (2021). Fruit and Vegetable Intake and All-Cause Mortality in a Chinese Population: The China Health and Nutrition Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(1), 342. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010342