Exploring the Link between Work Addiction Risk and Health-Related Outcomes Using Job-Demand-Control Model
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Framework
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Study Methodology
3.2. Participants
3.3. Measures
3.4. Statistics
4. Results
4.1. Work Addiction Risk and Distribution of Participants
4.2. Association of Work Addiction Risk with Gender and Occupation
4.3. Association of Work Addiction Risk and Work Perception
4.4. Work Addiction Risk and Mental Health Indicators
5. Discussion
5.1. Prevalence of Work Addiction
5.2. Work Addiction Risk and Job Demand-Control Model
5.3. Correlates of Work Addiction
5.4. Theoretical and Practical Implications
6. Limitations
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Data Availability Statement
References
- Quinones, C.; Griffiths, M.D. Addiction to work A critical review of the workaholism constructs and recommendations for assessment. J. Psychosoc. Nurs. 2015, 35, 48–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sussman, S. Workaholism: A review. J. Addict. Res. Ther. 2013, 6, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Andreassen, C.S.; Griffiths, M.D.; Hetland, J.; Kravina, L.; Jensen, F.; Pallesen, S. The prevalence of workaholism: A survey study in a nationally representative sample of Norwegian employees. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e102446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Andreassen, C.S. Workaholism: An overview and current status of the research. J. Behav. Addict. 2014, 3, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kubota, K.; Shimazu, A.; Kawakami, N.; Takahashi, M.; Nakata, A.; Shaufeli, W.B. Association between workaholism and slepp problems among hospital nurses. Ind. Health 2010, 48, 1006240015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Matuska, K.M. Workaholism, life balance, and well-being: A comparative analysis. J. Occup. Sci. 2010, 17, 104–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ng, T.W.H.; Sorensen, K.L.; Feldman, D.C. Dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of workaholism: A conceptual integration and extension. J. Organ. Behav. 2007, 28, 111–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schaufeli, W.B.; Bakker, A.B.; Van der Heijden, F.M.M.A.; Prins, J.T. Workaholism, burnout and well-being among junior doctors: The mediating role of role conflict. Work Stress 2009, 23, 155–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shimazu, A.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Kamiyama, K.; Kawakami, N. Workaholism vs. work engagement: The two different predictors of future well-being and performance. Int. J. Behav. Med. 2015, 22, 18–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Beek, I.; Taris, T.W.; Schaufeli, W.B. Workaholic and work engaged employees: Dead ringers or worlds apart? J. Occup. Health Psychol. 2011, 16, 468–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Shimazu, A.; Schaufeli, W.B. Is workaholism good or bad for employee well-being? The distinctiveness of workaholism and work engagement among Japanese employees. Ind. Health 2009, 47, 495–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Di Stefano, G.; Gaudiino, M. Differential effects of workaholism and work engagement on the interference between life and work domains. Eur. J. Psychol. 2018, 14, 863–879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Balducci, C.; Avanzi, L.; Fraccaroli, F. The individual “costs” of workaholism: An analysis based on multisource and prospective data. J. Manag. 2018, 44, 2961–2986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buelens, M.; Poelmans, S.A.Y. Enriching the Spence and Robbins’ typology of workaholism. J. Organ. Chang. Manag. 2004, 17, 440–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scott, K.S.; Moor, K.S.; Miceli, M.P. An exploration of the meaning and consequences of workaholism. Hum. Relat. 1997, 50, 287–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schaufeli, W.B.; Shimazu, A.; Taris, T.W. Being driven to work excessively hard: The evaluation of a two-factor measure of workaholism in The Netherlands and Japan. Cross Cult. Res. 2009, 43, 320–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Andreassen, C.S.; Hetland, J.; Molde, H.; Pallesen, S. ’Workaholism’ and potential outcomes in well-being and health in a cross-occupational sample. Stress Health 2011, 27, e209–e214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spence, J.T.; Robbins, A.S. Workaholism: Definition, measurement and preliminary results. J. Personal. Assess. 1992, 58, 160–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schaufeli, W.B.; Taris, T.W.; Bakker, A.B. It takes two to tango: Workaholism is working excessively and working complusively. In The Long Work Hours Culture: Causes, Consequences and Choices; Bingley: Emerald, Melbourne, Australia, 2008; pp. 203–226. ISBN 1-84855-038-3. [Google Scholar]
- Wojdylo, K.; Baumann, N.; Fischbach, L.; Engeser, S. Live to work or love to work: Work craving and work engagement. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e106379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schaufeli, W.B.; Taris, T.W.; Bakker, A.B. Dr Jekyll or Mr Hyde? On the differences between workengament and workaholism. In Research Companion to Working Time and Work Addiction; Burice, R.J., Ed.; Edward Edgar: Chetenham, UK, 2006; pp. 193–217. [Google Scholar]
- Van Beek, I.; Hu, Q.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Taris, T.W.; Schreurs, B.H.J. For fun, love, or money: What drives workaholic, engaged, and burned-out employees at work? Appl. Psychol. 2012, 61, 30–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Haylett, S.A.; Stephenson, G.M.; Lefever, R.M.H. Covariation in addictive behaviours: A study of addictive orientations using the shorter PROMIS questionnaire. Addict. Behav. 2004, 29, 61–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taris, T.W.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Verhoeven, L.C. Workaholism in The Netherlands: Measurement and implications for job strain and work–nonwork conflict. Appl. Psychol. 2005, 54, 37–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kanai, A.; Wakabayashi, M.; Fling, S. Workaholism among employees in Japanese corporations: An examination based on the Japanese version of the workaholism scales. Jpn. Psychol. Res. 1996, 38, 192–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bakker, A.B.; Demerouti, E.; Burke, R. Workaholism and relationship quality: A spillover-crossover perspective. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 2009, 14, 23–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ng, T.W.H.; Eby, L.T.; Sorensen, K.L.; Feldman, D.C. Predictors of objective and subjective career success: A meta-analysis. Pers. Psychol. 2005, 58, 367–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erden, N.S.; Toplu, D.; Yashoglu, M.M. Mediating effects of job demands on the relationship between type a personality and workaholism: A study on Turkish workers. IUP J. Organ. Behav. 2013, 12, 7–19. [Google Scholar]
- Rezvani, A.; Bouju, G.; Keriven-Dessomme, B.; Moret, L.; Grall-Bronnec, M. Workaholism: Are physicians at risk? Occup. Med. 2014, 64, 410–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Magnavita, N. Two tools for health surveillance of job stress: The karasek job content questionnaire and the siegrist effort reward imbalance questionnaire. G. Ital. Med. Lav. Ergon. 2007, 29, 667–670. [Google Scholar]
- Böckerman, P.; Bryson, A.; Ilmakunnas, P. Does high involvement management improve worker wellbeing? J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 2012, 84, 660–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Clark, M.A.; Michel, J.S.; Zhdanova, L.; Pui, S.Y.; Baltes, B.B. All work and no play? A meta-analytic examination of the correlates and outcomes of workaholism. J. Manag. 2016, 42, 1836–1873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karasek, R.A.; Brisson, C.; Kawakami, N.; Houtman, I.; Bongers, P.; Amick, B. The job content questionnaire (JCQ): An instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics. J. Occuptional Health Psychol. 1998, 3, 322–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niedhammer, I. Psychometric properties of the French version of the Karasek Job Content Questionnaire: A study of the scales of decision latitude, psychological demands, social support, and physical demands in the GAZEL cohort. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2002, 75, 129–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Niedhammer, I.; Chastang, J.F.; Gendrey, L.; David, S.; Degioanni, S. Psychometric properties of the French version of Karasek’s “Job Content Questionnaire” and its scales measuring psychological pressures, decisional latitude and social support: The results of the SUMER. Santé Publique 2006, 18, 413–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Collins, S.M.; Karasek, R.A.; Costas, K. Job strain and autonomic indices of cardiovascular disease risk. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2005, 48, 182–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trousselard, M.; Dutheil, F.; Naughton, G.; Cosserant, S.; Amadon, S.; Dualé, C.; Schoeffler, P. Stress among nurses working in emergency, anesthesiology and intensive care units depends on qualification: A job demand-control survey. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2015, 89, 221–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karasek, R.A.; Baker, D.; Marxer, F.; Ahlbom, A.; Theorell, T. Job decision latitude, job demands, and cardiovascular disease: A prospective study of Swedish men. Am. J. Public Health 1981, 71, 694–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Niedhammer, I.; Chastang, J.F.; Levy, D.; David, S.; Degioanni, S.; Theorell, T. Study of the validity of a job-exposure matrix for psychosocial work factors: Results from the national French SUMER survey. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2008, 82, 87–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dutheil, F.; Duclos, M.; Naughton, G.; Dewavrin, S.; Cornet, T.; Huguet, P.; Chatard, J.C.; Pereira, B. Wittyfit-live your work differently: Study protocol for a workplace-delivered health promotion. JMIR Res. Protoc. 2017, 6, e58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, B. The work addiction risk test: Development of a tentative measure of workaholism. Percept. Mot. Skill 1999, 88, 199–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flowers, C.P.; Robbins, A.S. A structural and discriminant analysis of the work addiction risk test. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 2002, 62, 517–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ravoux, H.; Pereira, B.; Brousse, G.; Dewavrin, S.; Cornet, T.; Mermillod, M.; Mondillon, L.; Vallet, G.; Moustafa, F.; Dutheil, F.; et al. Work addiction test questionnaire to assess workaholism: Validation of french version. JMIR Ment. Health 2018, 5, e12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dutheil, F.; Boudet, G.; Perrier, C.; Lac, G.; Ouchchane, L.; Chamoux, A.; Duclos, M.; Schmidt, J. JOBSTRESS study: Comparison of heart rate variability in emergency physicians working a 24-h shift or a 14-h night shift—A randomized trial. Int. J. Cardiol. 2012, 158, 322–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dutheil, F.; Pereira, B.; Moustafa, F.; Naughton, G.; Lesage, F.; Lambert, C. At-risk and intervention thresholds of occupational stress using a visual analogue scale. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0178948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dutheil, F.; Trousselard, M.; Perrier, C.; Lac, G.; Chamoux, A.; Duclos, M.; Naughton, G.; Mnatzaganian, G.; Schmidt, J. Urinary interleukin-8 is a biomarker of stress in emergency physicians, especially with advancing age—The JOBSTRESS* randomized trial. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e71658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dutheil, F.; Chambres, P.; Hufnagel, C.; Auxiette, C.; Chausse, P.; Ghozi, R.; Paugam, G.; Boudet, G.; Khalfa, N.; Naughton, G.; et al. ’Do well B.’: Design of Well Being monitoring systems. A study protocol for the application in autism. BMJ Open 2015, 5, e007716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Dutheil, F.; Marhar, F.; Boudet, G.; Perrier, C.; Naughton, G.; Chamoux, A.; Huguet, P.; Mermillod, M.; Saâdaoui, F.; Moustafa, F.; et al. Maximal tachycardia and high cardiac strain during night shifts of emergency physicians. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2017, 90, 467–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hufnagel, C.; Chambres, P.; Bertrand, P.; Dutheil, F. The need for objective measures of stress in autism. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zigmond, A.S.; Snaith, R.P. The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1983, 67, 361–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Snaith, R.P. The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Health Qual. Life Outcomes 2003, 1, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Herrmann, C. International experiences with the hospital anxiety and depressoin Scale—A review of validation data and clinical results. J. Psychosom. Res. 1997, 42, 17–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Terwee, C.B.; Bot, S.D.; De Boer, M.R.; Van der Windt, D.A.; Knol, D.L.; Dekker, J.; Bouter, L.M.; De Vet, H.C. Quality criteria were proposed for measurement properties of health status questionnaires. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2007, 60, 34–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rothman, K. No adjustments are needed for multiple comparisons. Epidemiology 1990, 1, 43–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Feise, R.J. Do multiple outcome measures require p-value adjustment? BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 2002, 2, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bartczak, M.; Oginska-Bulik, N. Workaholism and mental health among Polish academic workers. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 2012, 18, 3–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Villella, C.; Martinotti, G.; Di Nicola, M.; Cassano, M.; La Torre, G.; Gliubizzi, M.D.; Messeri, I.; Petruccelli, F.; Bria, P.; Janiri, L.; et al. Behavioural addictions in adolescents and young adults: Results from a prevalence study. J. Gambl. Stud. 2011, 27, 203–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taris, T.W. Van Beek, I.; Schaufeli, W.B. Demographic and occupational corelates of workaholism. Psychol. Rep. 2012, 110, 547–554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andreassen, C.S.; Griffiths, M.D.; Sinha, R.; Hetland, J.; Pallesen, S. The relationships between workaholism and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0152978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beiler-May, A.; Williamson, R.L.; Clark, M.A.; Carter, N.T. Gender Bias in the measurement of workaholism. J. Personal. Assess. 2017, 99, 104–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palumbo, A.J.; De Roos, A.J.; Cannuscio, C.; Robinson, L.; Mossey, J.; Weitlauf, J.; Garcia, L.; Wallace, R.; Michael, Y. Work characteristics associated with physical functioning in women. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Peckham, T.K.; Baker, M.G.; Camp, J.E.; Kaufman, J.D.; Seixas, N.S. Creating a future for occupational health. Ann. Work Expo. Health 2017, 61, 3–15. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Nishinoue, N.; Takano, T.; Kaku, A.; Eto, R.; Kato, N.; Ono, Y.; Tanaka, K. Effects of sleep hygiene education and behavioral therapy on sleep quality of white-collar workers—A randomized controlled trial. Ind. Health 2012, 50, 123–131. [Google Scholar]
- Caroll, J.; Robbins, B.E. Depression and parentification among adults as related to parental workaholism and alcoholism. Fam. J. Couns. Ther. Couples Fam. 2000, 8, 360–367. [Google Scholar]
- Robinson, B.E.; Post, P. Risk of addiction to work and family functioning. Psychol. Rep. 1997, 81, 91–95. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Lanhers, C.; Pereira, B.; Garde, G.; Maublant, C.; Dutheil, F.; Coudeyre, E. Evaluation of ’I-Preventive’: A digital preventive tool for musculoskeletal disorders in computer workers-a pilot cluster randomised trial. BMJ Open 2016, 6, e011304. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Dutheil, F.; Delaire, P.; Boudet, G.; Rouffiac, K.; Djeriri, K.; Souweine, B.; Chamoux, A. Cost/effectiveness comparison of the vaccine campaign and reduction of sick leave, after vaccination against influenza among the Clermont-Ferrand University Hospital staff. Med. Mal. Infect. 2008, 38, 567–573. [Google Scholar]
- Dutheil, F.; Kelly, C.; Biat, I.; Provost, D.; Baud, O.; Laurichesse, H.; Chamoux, A. Relation between the level of knowledge and the rate of vaccination against the flu virus among the staff of the Clermont-Ferrand University hospital. Med. Mal. Infect. 2008, 38, 586–594. [Google Scholar]
- Kelly, C.; Dutheil, F.; Haniez, P.; Boudet, G.; Rouffiac, K.; Traore, O. Analysis of motivations for antiflu vaccination of the Clermont-Ferrand University Hospital staff. Med. Mal. Infect. 2008, 38, 574–585. [Google Scholar]
Variables | Work Addiction Risk Test (WART) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Low-Risk Score ≤ 56 | Medium-Risk 57 ≤ Score ≤ 66 | High-Risk Score ≥ 67 | ||
Work Addiction Risk Test (WART) | ||||
n (%) | 85 (45.5) | 61 (32.6) | 41 (21.9) | |
Mean ± SD | 48.1 ± 6.7 | 61.2 ± 2.7 | 73.1 ± 4.9 | |
Sex, n (%) | ||||
Men | 41 (56.2) | 21 (28.8) | 11 (15.1) | 0.023 |
Women | 31 (35.2) | 33 (37.5) | 24 (27.3) | |
Age (years), mean ± SD | 43.7 ± 12.1 | 40.9 ± 12.0 | 39.4 ± 10.7 | 0.190 |
Family situation, n (%) | 0.390 | |||
Single | 19 (26.4) | 7 (13.0) | 8 (22.9) | |
De facto | 15 (20.8) | 19 (35.2) | 10 (28.6) | |
Married | 37 (51.4) | 28 (51.9) | 17 (48.6) | |
Widow(ed) | 1 (1.4) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
Education level, n (%) | 0.210 | |||
General Certificate of Secondary Education | 2 (2.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
A-level | 3 (4.2) | 4 (7.4) | 1 (2.9) | |
Higher National Diploma | 10 (13.9) | 2 (3.7) | 1 (2.9) | |
Bachelor degree | 10 (13.9) | 5 (9.3) | 5 (14.3) | |
Master degree or higher | 47 (65.3) | 43 (79.6) | 28 (80.0) | |
Occupational group, n (%) | 0.800 | |||
Merchants–Business | 2 (2.8) | 2 (3.7) | 2 (5.7) | |
Employees | 17 (23.6) | 7 (13.0) | 4 (11.4) | |
Intermediate profession | 4 (5.6) | 3 (5.6) | 3 (8.6) | |
Inactive employment | 5 (6.9) | 3 (5.6) | 2 (5.7) | |
Manager—Intellectual profession | 44 (61.1) | 39 (72.2) | 24 (68.6) | |
Hours worked per week, mean ± SD | 39.4 ± 10.9 | 40.6 ± 12.5 | 46.9 ± 13.6 | 0.005 |
Seniority in the company-years, mean ± SD | 11.9 ± 10.9 | 11.3 ± 11.6 | 8.8 ± 9.31 | 0.330 |
Body mass index-kg.m−2, mean ± SD | 24.4 ± 4.3 | 24.0 ± 4.9 | 24.0 ± 4.0 | 0.810 |
Physical activity index, mean ± SD | 344 ± 355 | 408 ± 403 | 292 ± 288 | 0.215 |
Metabolic Equivalent Task (MET), mean ± SD | 49.3 ± 54.5 | 55.6 ± 55.2 | 40.1 ± 39.6 | 0.258 |
Tobacco smoker, n (%) | 22 (56.4) | 9 (23.1) | 8 (20.5) | 0.256 |
Alcohol users, n (%) | 9 (30.0) | 12 (40.0) | 9 (30.0) | 0.171 |
Cannabis consumer, n (%) | 9 (64.3) | 2 (14.3) | 3 (21.4) | 0.242 |
Job Content Questionnaire by Karasek | Work Addiction Risk Test (WART) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Low-Risk Score ≤ 56 | Medium-Risk 57≤ Score ≤ 66 | High-Risk Score ≥ 67 | ||
Job demands | ||||
Mean ± SD | 21.2 ± 7.0 | 21.3 ± 4.6 | 23.8 ± 4.9 | 0.0007 |
score < 21, n (%) | 32 (54.2) | 23 (39.0) | 4 (6.8) | 0.002 |
score ≥ 21, n (%) | 49 (39.5) | 38 (30.7) | 37 (29.8) | |
Job control | ||||
Mean ± SD | 77.2 ± 12.1 | 77.9 ± 11.2 | 75.4 ± 11.0 | 0.499 |
score < 70, n (%) | 21 (44.7) | 14 (29.8) | 12 (25.5) | 0.772 |
score ≥ 70, n (%) | 60 (44.1) | 47 (34.6) | 29 (21.3) | |
Social support | ||||
Mean ± SD | 29.6 ± 41.9 | 31.6 ± 48.3 | 33.3 ± 58.9 | 0.709 |
score < 23, n (%) | 14 (37.8) | 11 (29.7) | 12 (32.4) | 0.220 |
score ≥ 23, n (%) | 71 (47.3) | 50 (33.3) | 29 (19.3) |
Karasek’s Model | Work Addiction Risk Test (WART) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Low-Risk Score ≤ 56 | Medium-Risk 57 ≤ Score ≤ 66 | High-Risk Score ≥ 67 | p-Value | |
Active job n (%) | 38 (39.2) | 31 (32.0) | 28 (28.9) | 0.010 |
High-strain job n (%) | 11 (40.7) | 7 (25.9) | 9 (33.3) | |
Low-strain job n (%) | 22 (56.4) | 16 (41.0) | 1 (2.6) | |
Passive job n (%) | 10 (50.0) | 7 (35.0) | 3 (15.0) |
Variables | Work Addiction (WART) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Low-Risk Score ≤ 56 | Medium-Risk 57≤ Score ≤ 66 | High-Risk Score ≥ 67 | ||
HAD-Depression | ||||
Mean ± SD | 9.2 ± 1.4 | 9.3 ± 1.3 | 10.0 ± 2.2 | 0.247 |
Score ≤ 7, n (%) | 7 (8.2) | 3 (4.9) | 4 (9.8) | 0.009 |
8 ≤ score ≤ 10, n (%) | 63 (74.1) | 49 (80.3) | 20 (48.8) | |
Score ≥ 11, n (%) | 15 (17.7) | 9 (14.8) | 17 (41.5) | |
HAD-Anxiety | ||||
Mean ± SD | 16.4 ± 3.1 | 13.9 ± 3.2 | 10.3 ± 3.9 | <0.001 |
Score ≤ 7, n (%) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (3.3) | 8 (19.5) | <0.001 |
8≤ score ≤ 10, n (%) | 5 (5.9) | 8 (13.1) | 14 (34.2) | |
Score ≥ 11, n (%) | 80 (94.1) | 51 (83.6) | 19 (46.3) | |
Sleep (mean ± SD) | ||||
VAS | 64.4 ± 26.8 | 54.4 ± 26.4 | 44.0 ± 27.3 | <0.001 |
minute by night | 430.4 ± 50.7 | 427.8 ± 63.6 | 415.6 ± 56.3 | 0.263 |
VAS Stress at work | ||||
Mean ± SD | 47.5 ± 25.1 | 59.4 ± 21.1 | 68.4 ± 23.2 | <0.001 |
VAS Stress at home | ||||
Mean ± SD | 26.3 ± 22.7 | 39.7 ± 26.7 | 47.0 ± 21.5 | |
VAS Well-being | ||||
Mean ± SD | 69.7 ± 18.3 | 62.2 ± 21.4 | 49.3 ± 23.0 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Dutheil, F.; Charkhabi, M.; Ravoux, H.; Brousse, G.; Dewavrin, S.; Cornet, T.; Mondillon, L.; Han, S.; Pfabigan, D.; S Baker, J.; et al. Exploring the Link between Work Addiction Risk and Health-Related Outcomes Using Job-Demand-Control Model. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207594
Dutheil F, Charkhabi M, Ravoux H, Brousse G, Dewavrin S, Cornet T, Mondillon L, Han S, Pfabigan D, S Baker J, et al. Exploring the Link between Work Addiction Risk and Health-Related Outcomes Using Job-Demand-Control Model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(20):7594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207594
Chicago/Turabian StyleDutheil, Frédéric, Morteza Charkhabi, Hortense Ravoux, Georges Brousse, Samuel Dewavrin, Thomas Cornet, Laurie Mondillon, Sihui Han, Daniela Pfabigan, Julien S Baker, and et al. 2020. "Exploring the Link between Work Addiction Risk and Health-Related Outcomes Using Job-Demand-Control Model" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 20: 7594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207594