The Association between Parental Involvement Behavior and Self-Esteem among Adolescents Living in Poverty: Results from the K-CHILD Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measurements
2.2.1. Child Poverty
2.2.2. Parental Involvement Behaviors
2.2.3. Self-Esteem
2.2.4. Covariates
2.3. Ethics
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Participants in This Study
3.2. Distribution of Parental Involvement Behaviors
3.3. Association between Parental Involvement Behaviors and Self-Esteem among Adolescents Living in Poverty and not Living in Poverty
3.4. Association between Parental Interaction with Child and Self-Esteem among Adolescents Living in Poverty and not Living in Poverty
3.5. Association between Parental Care for Child’s Physical Health and Self-Esteem among Adolescents Living in Poverty and not Living in Poverty
3.6. Comparison among Effect Size of Parental Interaction with Child and Parental Care for Child’s Physical Health
3.7. Interaction between Poverty and Paretal Involvement Behaviors
3.8. Association between Each Parental Involvement Behaviors and Self-Esteem among Adolescents Living in Poverty and not Living in Poverty
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Total (n = 10,784) | Not Living in Poverty (n = 7088; 65.7%) | Living in Poverty (n = 3696; 34.3%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % or Mean (SD) | n | % or Mean (SD) | n | % or Mean (SD) | p for t-Test or Chi-Squared Test | ||
Basic demographics | ||||||||
Respondent | Mother | 9384 | 87.0 | 6153 | 86.8 | 3231 | 87.4 | 0.005 |
Father | 1130 | 10.5 | 775 | 10.9 | 355 | 9.6 | ||
Grandparent | 110 | 1.0 | 58 | 0.8 | 52 | 1.4 | ||
Others | 60 | 0.6 | 34 | 0.5 | 26 | 0.7 | ||
Missing | 100 | 0.9 | 68 | 1.0 | 32 | 0.9 | ||
Child sex | Male | 5025 | 46.6 | 3317 | 46.8 | 1708 | 46.2 | 0.675 |
Female | 5525 | 51.2 | 3613 | 51 | 1912 | 51.7 | ||
Missing | 234 | 2.2 | 158 | 2.2 | 76 | 2.1 | ||
Grade | 5th | 3117 | 28.9 | 1955 | 27.6 | 1162 | 31.4 | <0.001 |
8th | 3498 | 32.4 | 2339 | 33 | 1159 | 31.4 | ||
11th | 4169 | 38.7 | 2794 | 39.4 | 1375 | 37.2 | ||
Maternal age | <40 years | 1837 | 17.0 | 994 | 14.0 | 843 | 22.8 | <0.001 |
40 years–<50 years | 6841 | 63.4 | 4689 | 66.2 | 2152 | 58.2 | ||
50 years+ | 1344 | 12.5 | 971 | 13.7 | 373 | 10.1 | ||
Missing | 762 | 7.1 | 434 | 6.1 | 328 | 8.9 | ||
Marital status | Married | 8696 | 80.6 | 6213 | 87.7 | 2483 | 67.2 | <0.001 |
Unmarried/divorced/widowed | 1974 | 18.3 | 802 | 11.3 | 1172 | 31.7 | ||
Missing | 114 | 1.1 | 73 | 1.0 | 41 | 1.1 | ||
Having older sibling | No | 6175 | 57.3 | 4121 | 58.1 | 2054 | 55.6 | 0.011 |
Yes | 4609 | 42.7 | 2967 | 41.9 | 1642 | 44.4 | ||
Having younger sibling | No | 5527 | 51.3 | 3716 | 52.4 | 1811 | 49.0 | 0.001 |
Yes | 5257 | 48.7 | 3372 | 47.6 | 1885 | 51.0 | ||
Caregiver’s childhood socioeconomic status | ||||||||
Economic difficulties in childhood | No | 8739 | 81.0 | 6023 | 85.0 | 2716 | 73.5 | <0.001 |
Yes | 2045 | 19.0 | 1065 | 15.0 | 980 | 26.5 | ||
Maternal education | High school or less | 3944 | 36.6 | 2111 | 29.8 | 1833 | 49.6 | <0.001 |
Some college | 4654 | 43.2 | 3331 | 47.0 | 1323 | 35.8 | ||
College or more | 1448 | 13.4 | 1207 | 17.0 | 241 | 6.5 | ||
Other/Unknown | 53 | 0.5 | 31 | 0.4 | 22 | 0.6 | ||
Missing | 685 | 6.4 | 408 | 5.8 | 277 | 7.5 | ||
Caregiver’s other possible confounders | ||||||||
Psychological distress (K6) | 0–<5 | 7441 | 69.0 | 5344 | 75.4 | 2097 | 56.7 | |
5–<13 | 2442 | 22.6 | 1323 | 18.7 | 1119 | 30.3 | <0.001 | |
13+ | 526 | 4.9 | 192 | 2.7 | 334 | 9.0 | ||
Missing | 375 | 3.5 | 229 | 3.2 | 146 | 4.0 | ||
Relationship with neighborhood | High | 3109 | 28.8 | 2144 | 30.2 | 965 | 26.1 | <0.001 |
Low | 7153 | 66.3 | 4606 | 65.0 | 2547 | 68.9 | ||
Missing | 522 | 4.8 | 338 | 4.8 | 184 | 5.0 |
Parental Involvement Behaviors | Not Living in Poverty (n = 7088; 65.7%) | Living in Poverty (n = 3696; 34.3%) | p for Chi-Squared Test | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | |||
Parental interaction with child | ||||||
Helping child study | <1 a week | 4775 | 67.4 | 2424 | 65.6 | 0.175 |
1+ a week | 2039 | 28.8 | 1120 | 30.3 | ||
Missing | 274 | 3.9 | 152 | 4.1 | ||
Talking about school life | <5 a week | 3098 | 43.7 | 1812 | 49.0 | <0.001 |
Almost everyday | 3728 | 52.6 | 1746 | 47.2 | ||
Missing | 262 | 3.7 | 138 | 3.7 | ||
Talking about news | <3 a week | 4648 | 65.6 | 2634 | 71.3 | <0.001 |
3+ a week | 2156 | 30.4 | 916 | 24.8 | ||
Missing | 284 | 4.0 | 146 | 3.9 | ||
Playing with child (physical activity) | Rarely | 4754 | 67.1 | 2500 | 67.6 | 0.549 |
1+ a month | 2043 | 28.8 | 1045 | 28.3 | ||
Missing | 291 | 4.1 | 151 | 4.1 | ||
Talking about TV shows with child | <5 a week | 4281 | 60.4 | 2232 | 60.4 | 0.924 |
Almost everyday | 2538 | 35.8 | 1320 | 35.7 | ||
Missing | 269 | 3.8 | 144 | 3.9 | ||
Cooking with child | <3 a month | 5526 | 78.0 | 2744 | 74.2 | <0.001 |
1+ a week | 1279 | 18.0 | 808 | 21.9 | ||
Missing | 283 | 4.0 | 144 | 3.9 | ||
Going out with child | <3 a month | 3259 | 45.9 | 1578 | 42.7 | 0.001 |
1+ a week | 3577 | 50.5 | 1987 | 53.8 | ||
Missing | 252 | 3.6 | 131 | 3.5 | ||
Talking about child’s future | Sometimes or less | 4870 | 68.7 | 2630 | 71.2 | 0.031 |
Frequently | 1989 | 28.1 | 959 | 25.9 | ||
Missing | 229 | 3.2 | 107 | 2.9 | ||
Hosting events for child | No | 41 | 0.6 | 103 | 2.8 | <0.001 |
Yes | 6844 | 96.6 | 3499 | 94.7 | ||
Missing | 203 | 2.9 | 94 | 2.5 | ||
Parental care for child physical health | ||||||
Having experience of not visiting the hospital for child | Yes | 743 | 10.5 | 670 | 18.1 | <0.001 |
No | 6034 | 85.1 | 2860 | 77.4 | ||
Missing | 311 | 4.4 | 166 | 4.5 | ||
History of routine vaccination | No/unknown | 301 | 4.3 | 332 | 9.0 | |
Yes | 6498 | 91.7 | 3209 | 86.8 | <0.001 | |
Missing | 289 | 4.1 | 155 | 4.2 | ||
Maternal smoking in front of child | Smoking in front of child | 788 | 11.1 | 955 | 25.9 | <0.001 |
Never smoking/smoking but not in front of child | 5937 | 83.8 | 2466 | 66.7 | ||
Missing | 363 | 5.1 | 275 | 7.4 | ||
Paternal smoking in front of child | Smoking in front of child | 2333 | 32.9 | 1383 | 37.4 | <0.001 |
Never smoking/smoking but not in front of child | 4004 | 56.5 | 1256 | 34.0 | ||
Missing | 751 | 10.6 | 1057 | 28.6 | ||
Cooking for child | <6 (days) week | 985 | 13.9 | 707 | 19.1 | <0.001 |
Almost everyday | 5858 | 82.6 | 2867 | 77.6 | ||
Missing | 245 | 3.5 | 122 | 3.3 |
Living in Poverty | Not Living in Poverty | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | Model 1 a | Model 2 b | Crude | Model 1 a | Model 2 b | ||
β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | ||
Parental involvement behaviors | Total score (0–14) | 0.42 ** (0.33 to 0.50) | 0.29 ** (0.20 to 0.38) | 0.26 ** (0.17 to 0.35) | 0.48 ** (0.42 to 0.53) | 0.29 ** (0.23 to 0.35) | 0.27 ** (0.20 to 0.33) |
Respondent | Mother | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Father | 0.85 ** (0.07 to 1.62) | 0.71 (−0.05 to 1.48) | −0.12 (−0.58 to 0.34) | −0.22 (−0.68 to 0.24) | |||
Grandparent | 0.56 (−1.13 to 2.24) | 0.28 (−1.38 to 1.95) | −1.41 (−3.02 to 0.20) | −1.74 ** (−3.36 to −0.11) | |||
Others | −0.06 (−2.88 to 2.76) | −0.15 (−3.05 to 2.75) | −0.38 (−2.46 to 1.71) | −0.48 (−2.51 to 1.55) | |||
Child sex | Male | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Female | −1.37 ** (−1.76 to −0.96) | −1.38 ** (−1.78 to −0.97) | −1.39 ** (−1.67 to −1.12) | −1.38 ** (−1.66 to −1.10) | |||
Grade | 5th | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
8th | −2.40 ** (−2.95 to −1.85) | −2.40 ** (−2.95 to −1.85) | −2.60 ** (−2.98 to −2.23) | −2.61 ** (−2.99 to −2.24) | |||
11th | −2.67 ** (−3.25 to −2.10) | −2.69 ** (−3.27 to −2.12) | −3.20 ** (−3.26 to −2.79) | −3.26 ** (−3.66 to −2.85) | |||
Maternal age | <40 years | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
40 years–<50 years | 0.32 (−0.22 to 0.87) | 0.23 (−0.31 to 0.76) | −0.05 (−0.48 to 0.37) | −0.08 (−0.51 to 0.35) | |||
50 years+ | −0.16 (−0.99 to 0.67) | −0.24 (−1.06 to 0.59) | −0.44 (−1.02 to 0.14) | −0.46 (−1.04 to 0.12) | |||
Marital status | Married | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Unmarried/divorced/widowed | 0.34 (−0.13 to 0.81) | 0.35 (−0.11 to 0.82) | 0.25 (−0.24 to 0.73) | 0.25 (−0.23 to 0.75) | |||
Having older sibling | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 0.04 (−0.41 to 0.48) | −0.05 (−0.49 to 0.39) | −0.29 (−0.59 to 0.02) | −0.32 * (−0.63 to −0.02) | |||
Having younger sibling | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 0.24 (−0.21 to 0.69) | 0.16 (−0.28 to 0.27) | −0.28 (−0.59 to 0.04) | −0.33 * (−0.65 to −0.02) | |||
Economic difficulties in childhood | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | −0.37 (−0.84 to 0.09) | −0.19 (−0.65 to 0.27) | −0.31 (−0.70 to 0.08) | −0.21 (−0.60 to 0.18) | |||
Maternal education | High school or less | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Some college | 0.33 (−0.12 to 0.78) | 0.33 (−0.12 to 0.77) | 0.33 * (0.003 to 0.65) | 0.33 * (0.01 to 0.65) | |||
College or more | 0.78 (−0.09 to 1.66) | 0.71 (−0.17 to 1.59) | 0.63 ** (0.19 to 1.07) | 0.66 ** (0.22 to 1.09) | |||
Other/Unknown | 0.47 (−2.15 to 3.08) | 0.55 (−2.06 to 3.15) | 0.12 (−2.07 to 2.32) | 0.23 (−1.98 to 2.43) | |||
Caregiver’s psychological distress (K6) | 0–<5 | Ref | Ref | ||||
5–<13 | 0.56 (−0.22 to 1.33) | 0.81 (−0.17 to 1.80) | |||||
13+ | 1.19 ** (0.44 to 1.94) | 1.51 ** (0.57 to 2.46) | |||||
Caregiver’s relationship with neighborhood | High | Ref | Ref | ||||
Low | 0.99 ** (0.52 to 1.46) | 0.50 ** (0.20 to 0.81) | |||||
R2 | 0.029 | 0.087 | 0.100 | 0.040 | 0.116 | 0.122 |
Living in Poverty | Not Living in Poverty | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | Model 1 a | Model 2 b | Crude | Model 1 a | Model 2 b | ||
β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | ||
Parental interaction with child | Total score (0–9) | 0.47 ** (0.37 to 0.57) | 0.33 ** (0.22 to 0.44) | 0.30 ** (0.19 to 0.40) | 0.57 ** (0.50 to 0.63) | 0.34 ** (0.26 to 0.41) | 0.31 ** (0.24 to 0.38) |
Respondent | Mother | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Father | 0.87 * (0.09 to 1.65) | 0.71 (−0.05 to 1.48) | −0.12 (−0.58 to 0.34) | −0.22 (−0.68 to 0.24) | |||
Grandparent | 0.61 (−1.09 to 2.31) | 0.28 (−1.38 to 1.95) | −1.45 (−3.05 to 0.16) | −1.76 ** (−3.38 to −0.14) | |||
Others | −0.33 (−3.13 to 2.48) | −0.15 (−3.05 to 2.75) | −0.40 (−2.47 to 1.67) | −0.50 (−2.52 to 1.52) | |||
Child sex | Male | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Female | −1.40 ** (−1.81 to −1.00) | −1.38 ** (−1.78 to −0.97) | −1.42 ** (−1.70 to −1.14) | −1.41 ** (−1.68 to −1.13) | |||
Grade | 5th | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
8th | −2.39 ** (−2.94 to −1.84) | −2.40 ** (−2.95 to −1.85) | −2.56 ** (−2.93 to −2.18) | −2.56 ** (−2.94 to −2.19) | |||
11th | −2.69 ** (−3.27 to −2.12) | −2.69 ** (−3.27 to −2.12) | −3.18 ** (−3.59 to −2.78) | −3.23 ** (−3.64 to −2.83) | |||
Maternal age | <40 years | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
40 years–<50 years | 0.38 (−0.16 to 0.92) | 0.23 (−0.31 to 0.76) | 0.02 (−0.41 to 0.44) | −0.02 (−0.44 to 0.41) | |||
50 years+ | −0.04 (−0.88 to 0.79) | −0.24 (−1.06 to 0.59) | −0.33 (−0.91 to 0.25) | −0.35 (−0.94 to 0.23) | |||
Marital status | Married | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Unmarried/divorced/widowed | 0.15 (−0.32 to 0.61) | 0.35 (−0.11 to 0.82) | 0.02 (−0.46 to 0.50) | 0.05 (−0.43 to 0.53) | |||
Having older sibling | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 0.03 (−0.42 to 0.47) | −0.05 (−0.49 to 0.39) | −0.27 (−0.58 to 0.03) | −0.31 * (−0.61 to −0.005) | |||
Having younger sibling | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 0.26 (−0.19 to 0.71) | 0.16 (−0.28 to 0.27) | −0.24 (−0.55 to 0.07) | −0.30 (−0.61 to 0.01) | |||
Economic difficulties in childhood | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | −0.42 (−0.88 to 0.04) | −0.19 (−0.65 to 0.27) | −0.32 (−0.71 to 0.07) | −0.22 (−0.61 to 0.17) | |||
Maternal education | High school or less | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Some college | 0.41 (−0.04 to 0.86) | 0.33 (−0.12 to 0.77) | 0.38 * (0.06 to 0.70) | 0.38 * (0.05 to 0.70) | |||
College or more | 0.92 * (0.04 to 1.79) | 0.71 (−0.17 to 1.59) | 0.72 ** (0.28 to 1.15) | 0.73 ** (0.30 to 1.17) | |||
Other/Unknown | 0.43 (−2.15 to 3.02) | 0.55 (−2.06 to 3.15) | 0.08 (−2.12 to 2.29) | 0.19 (−2.03 to 2.41) | |||
Caregiver’s psychological distress (K6) | 0–<5 | Ref | Ref | ||||
5–<13 | 0.56 (−0.22 to 1.33) | 0.82 (−0.16 to 1.80) | |||||
13+ | 1.19 ** (0.44 to 1.94) | 1.55 ** (0.61 to 2.49) | |||||
Caregiver’s relationship with neighborhood | High | Ref | Ref | ||||
Low | 0.99 ** (0.52 to 1.46) | 0.49 ** (0.19 to 0.80) | |||||
R2 | 0.026 | 0.087 | 0.100 | 0.042 | 0.116 | 0.122 |
Living in Poverty | Not Living in Poverty | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | Model 1 a | Model 2 b | Crude | Model 1 a | Model 2 b | ||
β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | ||
Parental care for child’s physical health | Total score (0–5) | 0.41 ** (0.22 to 0.60) | 0.23 * (0.03 to 0.42) | 0.18 (−0.02 to 0.38) | 0.40 ** (0.26 to 0.54) | 0.24 * (0.09 to 0.39) | 0.20 * (0.05 to 0.35) |
Respondent | Mother | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Father | 0.70 (−0.08 to 1.48) | 0.57 (−0.19 to 1.34) | −0.27 (−0.73 to 0.19) | −0.37 (−0.83 to 0.10) | |||
Grandparent | 0.21 (−1.51 to 1.93) | −0.05 (−1.75 to 1.65) | −1.54 (−3.19 to 0.10) | −1.93 * (−3.58 to −0.28) | |||
Others | −0.18 (−2.99 to 2.63) | −0.27 (−3.16 to 2.63) | −0.39 (−2.40 to 1.63) | −0.51 (−2.46 to 1.45) | |||
Child sex | Male | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Female | −1.20 ** (−1.61 to −0.79) | −1.23 ** (−1.63 to −0.83) | −1.23 ** (−1.51 to −0.95) | −1.23 ** (−1.51 to −0.95) | |||
Grade | 5th | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
8th | −2.71 ** (−3.25 to −2.17) | −2.67 ** (−3.21 to −2.14) | −3.00 ** (−3.37 to −2.63) | −2.97 ** (−3.34 to −2.60) | |||
11th | −3.21 ** (−3.75 to −2.66) | −3.16 ** (−3.70 to −2.62) | −3.80 ** (−4.19 to −3.42) | −3.81 ** (−4.20 to −3.43) | |||
Maternal age | <40 years | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
40 years–<50 years | 0.29 (−0.25 to 0.83) | 0.19 (−0.35 to 0.73) | −0.08 (−0.51 to 0.35) | −0.10 (−0.53 to 0.33) | |||
50 years+ | −0.27 (−1.11 to 0.57) | −0.33 (−1.17 to 0.50) | −0.53 (−1.12 to 0.06) | −0.53 (−1.13 to 0.06) | |||
Marital status | Married | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Unmarried/divorced/widowed | 0.29 (−0.20 to 0.77) | 0.30 (−0.19 to 0.78) | 0.13 (−0.36 to 0.63) | 0.13 (−0.36 to 0.62) | |||
Having older sibling | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | −0.02 (−0.46 to 0.43) | −0.10 (−0.54 to 0.34) | −0.35 * (−0.65 to −0.04) | −0.38 * (−0.68 to −0.07) | |||
Having younger sibling | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 0.22 (−0.23 to 0.68) | 0.15 (−0.30 to 0.60) | −0.28 (−0.60 to 0.03) | −0.34 * (−0.66 to −0.03) | |||
Economic difficulties in childhood | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | −0.39 (−0.85 to 0.08) | −0.19 (−0.66 to 0.27) | −0.32 (−0.71 to 0.08) | −0.21 (−0.61 to 0.18) | |||
Maternal education | High school or less | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Some college | 0.37 (−0.09 to 0.83) | 0.36 (−0.09 to 0.81) | 0.38 * (0.06 to 0.70) | 0.38 * (0.06 to 0.70) | |||
College or more | 0.83 (−0.04 to 1.71) | 0.75 (−0.13 to 1.63) | 0.71 ** (0.27 to 1.16) | 0.74 ** (0.30 to 1.18) | |||
Other/Unknown | 0.50 (−2.17 to 3.18) | 0.58 (−2.07 to 3.23) | 0.24 (−1.99 to 2.46) | 0.35 (−1.88 to 2.59) | |||
Caregiver’s psychological distress (K6) | 0–<5 | Ref | Ref | ||||
5–<13 | 0.59 (−0.18 to 1.37) | 0.81 (−0.17 to 1.80) | |||||
13+ | 1.24 * (0.50 to 2.00) | 1.55 ** (0.61 to 2.50) | |||||
Caregiver’s relationship with neighborhood | High | Ref | Ref | ||||
Low | 1.12 ** (0.65 to 1.59) | 0.65 ** (0.34 to 0.95) | |||||
R2 | 0.006 | 0.077 | 0.092 | 0.005 | 0.106 | 0.113 |
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Doi, S.; Isumi, A.; Fujiwara, T. The Association between Parental Involvement Behavior and Self-Esteem among Adolescents Living in Poverty: Results from the K-CHILD Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6277. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176277
Doi S, Isumi A, Fujiwara T. The Association between Parental Involvement Behavior and Self-Esteem among Adolescents Living in Poverty: Results from the K-CHILD Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(17):6277. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176277
Chicago/Turabian StyleDoi, Satomi, Aya Isumi, and Takeo Fujiwara. 2020. "The Association between Parental Involvement Behavior and Self-Esteem among Adolescents Living in Poverty: Results from the K-CHILD Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 17: 6277. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176277