Distribution, Removal, and Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Their Metabolites in Five Sewage Plants
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental
2.1. Chemicals and Methods
2.2. Sample Collection
2.3. Sample Preparation
2.4. Analytical Protocol
2.5. Quality Assurance and Quality Control
2.6. Calculation of Mass Loads and Removal Efficiency
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Occurrence of PPCPs at Different Sewage Treatment Plants
3.1.1. Distribution of PPCPs in the Influent of Sewage Treatment Plants
3.1.2. Distribution of PPCPs in the Effluent of Sewage Treatment Plants
3.1.3. Distribution of PPCPs in Sludge and Suspended Particles
3.2. Mass Loads and Mass Balance Analysis
3.3. Removal Efficiencies of Different Sewage Treatment Plants
3.3.1. Removal Rate in Sewage Treatment Plant
3.3.2. Removal Efficiency in the Biological Treatment Unit
3.3.3. Removal Efficiency of the Precipitation, Filtration, and Ultraviolet Disinfection Process
4. Risk Assessment of PPCPs in Effluent
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Compounds | Molecular Formula | Physicochemical Properties | Use |
---|---|---|---|
Antipyrine ATP CAS:60-80-0 | MW: 188.23 Log Kow: 0.59 WS: 1000 g/L | Antipyretic, analgesic | |
Naproxen NPX CAS:22204-53-1 | MW: 230.26 Log Kow: 2.5 | Antipyretic, analgesic | |
Acetaminophen ACE * CAS:130-90-2 | MW: 151.16 Log Kow: 0.27 WS: 14 g/L | Antipyretic, analgesic | |
4-Chlorobenzoic acid 4-CBA * CAS:74-11-3 | MW: 156.57 Log Kow: 2.52 | Hypolipidemic | |
Ibuprofen IPF CAS:15687-27-1 | MW: 206.28 Log Kow: 3.79 | Anti-inflammatory | |
Clofibric acid CA CAS:882-09-7 | MW: 214.64 Log Kow: 2.84 | Hypolipidemic | |
Nifedipine NP CAS:21829-25-4 | MW: 346.34 Log Kow: 2.50 | Antihypertensive | |
Bezafibrate BZB CAS:41859-67-0 | MW: 361.83 Log Kow: 4.25 | Hypolipidemic | |
Diclofenac DCF CAS:15307-86-5 | MW: 296.15 Log Kow: 4.02 | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic |
PPCPs | ACE | ATP | 4-CBA | IPF | CA | NPX | DCF | NP | BZB | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plant A | Influent (ng/L) | 511.3 ± 35.5 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | - | 21.8 ± 2.5 | - | 3.8 ± 0.8 | 2.9 ± 0.4 | - | 0.65 ± 0.07 |
Effluent (ng/L) | - | 0.1 ± 0.0 | - | - | 2.6 ± 0.5 | 2.5 ± 0.6 | 22.6 ± 1.8 | - | - | |
Sludge (ng/g) | - | - | 0.9 ± 0.1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Particulate (ng/g) | - | - | 14.5 ± 9.5 | - | 3.0 ± 0.3 | - | - | - | - | |
Plant B | Influent (ng/L) | - | 5.8 ± 0.3 | - | - | - | - | 5.7 ± 1.3 | - | 0.8 ± 0.1 |
Effluent (ng/L) | - | 2.4 ± 0.1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1.1 ± 0.1 | |
Sludge (ng/g) | - | - | 2.3 ± 1.9 | - | - | - | 3.2 ± 0.6 | - | - | |
Particulate (ng/g) | - | - | 29.1 ± 1.2 | - | - | - | 14.6 ± 1.9 | - | - | |
Plant C | Influent (ng/L) | 208 ± 23.9 | 4.1 ± 0.9 | 23.9 ± 5.6 | 49.6 ± 2.2 | 2.2 ± 0.1 | - | 9.2 ± 1.5 | - | 4.1 ± 0.6 |
Effluent (ng/L) | - | - | 5.8 ± 1.6 | - | - | - | 1.2 ± 0.5 | - | 2.3 ± 0.1 | |
Sludge (ng/g) | - | - | 1.1 ± 0.1 | - | 3.3 ± 0.6 | - | - | - | - | |
Particulate (ng/g) | - | - | 12.8 ± 4.2 | - | - | - | 10.0 ± 0.8 | - | - | |
Plant D | Influent (ng/L) | - | 1.2 ± 0.1 | 88.0 ± 4.7 | - | - | 4.3 ± 2.4 | 61.2 ± 2.9 | - | 2.2 ± 0.3 |
Effluent (ng/L) | 360.2 ± 35.1 | 1.9 ± 0.2 | 4.1 ± 0.7 | 38.6 ± 2.8 | - | - | 4.1 ± 0.3 | 13.7 ± 2.1 | - | |
Particulate (ng/g) | - | - | 11.2 ± 2.1 | - | - | 80.5 ± 23.8 | 6.6 ± 0.8 | - | - | |
Plant E | Influent(ng/L) | 510.8 ± 25.3 | 1.1 ± 0.1 | 16.4 ± 0 | 23.3 ± 2.2 | - | - | 3.7 ± 1.1 | 19.8 ± 20.9 | 2.8 ± 0.8 |
Effluent (ng/L) | - | 1.2 ± 0.1 | - | - | 0.3 ± 0.1 | - | 55 ± 0.8 | - | 0.8 ± 0.5 | |
Sludge (ng/g) | - | - | 4.4 ± 0.5 | - | 1.3 ± 0.1 | - | 4.2 ± 0.8 | - | - | |
Particulate (ng/g) | - | - | 35.5 ± 9.5 | - | - | - | 5.2 ± 0.8 | - | - |
PPCPs | ACE | ATP | 4-CBA | IPF | CA | NPX | DCF | NP | BZB | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plant A | Influent (mg/d) | 15,696.9 | 27.6 | - | 669.3 | - | 116.7 | 89.0 | - | 20.0 |
Effluent (mg/d) | - | 3.1 | - | - | 79.8 | 76.8 | 693.8 | - | - | |
Sludge (mg/d) | - | - | 15.4 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Mass loss (mg/L) | 15,696.9 | 24.6 | −15.4 | 669.3 | −79.8 | 39.9 | −604.8 | - | 20.0 | |
Total mass loss | 100% | 89% | - | 100% | - | 34% | −679% | - | 100% | |
Plant B | Influent (mg/d) | - | 87.0 | - | - | - | - | 85.5 | - | 12.0 |
Effluent (mg/d) | - | 36.0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 16.5 | |
Sludge (mg/d) | - | - | 14.4 | - | - | - | 20.0 | - | - | |
Mass loss (mg/L) | - | 51.0 | −14.4 | - | - | - | 65.5 | - | −4.5 | |
Total mass loss | - | 59% | - | - | - | - | 77% | - | −38% | |
Plant C | Influent (mg/d) | 14,887.0 | 293.4 | 1710.6 | 3550.0 | 157.5 | - | 658.5 | - | 293.4 |
Effluent (mg/d) | - | - | 415.1 | - | - | - | 85.9 | - | 164.6 | |
Sludge (mg/d) | - | - | 54.2 | - | 162.5 | - | - | - | - | |
Mass loss (mg/L) | 14,887.0 | 293.4 | 1241.3 | 3550.0 | −5.1 | - | 572.6 | - | 128.8 | |
Total mass loss | 100% | 100% | 73% | 100% | −3% | - | 87% | - | 44% | |
Plant E | Influent (mg/d) | 51,080.0 | 110.0 | 1640.0 | 2330.0 | - | - | 370.0 | 1980.0 | 280.0 |
Effluent (mg/d) | - | 120.0 | - | - | - | - | 5500.0 | - | 80.0 | |
Sludge (mg/d) | - | - | 298.1 | - | 88.1 | - | 284.6 | - | - | |
Mass loss (mg/L) | 51,080.0 | −10.0 | 1341.9 | 2330.0 | −88.1 | - | −5414.6 | 1980.0 | 200.0 | |
Total mass loss | 100% | −9% | 82% | 100% | - | - | −1463% | 100% | 71% |
STP | Treat Process | ACE | ATP | 4-CBA | IPF | CA | NPX | DCF | NP | BZB |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plant A | Anaerobic | −11% | −89% | - | −31% | - | −273% | −130% | - | −264% |
Hypoxic | 100% | −134% | - | 100% | - | 30% | −1442% | - | 70% | |
Aerobic | - | 1% | - | - | 23% | 21% | 8% | - | −29% | |
Secondary clarifier | - | 2% | - | - | −4% | −4% | 10% | - | −4% | |
Inclined plate clarifier | - | 17% | - | - | 28% | −11% | 72% | - | 236% | |
Effluent | 100% | 97% | - | 100% | −24% | 73% | 6% | 100% | 100% | |
Plant B | Chemical reaction cell | - | −3% | - | - | - | - | 61% | - | −61% |
Air flotation tank | - | −1% | - | 100% | - | - | −123% | - | 32% | |
SBR | - | 18% | - | - | - | - | −169% | - | −124% | |
Fenton | - | 47% | - | - | - | - | 69% | - | 50% | |
Triple settling tank | - | 15% | 100% | - | - | - | −11% | - | 7% | |
Effluent | - | −11% | - | - | - | - | 100% | - | −23% | |
Plant C | Anaerobic | −43% | −11% | −5% | −200% | −25% | - | −627% | - | 34% |
Hypoxic | 96% | −39% | 62% | 59% | 22% | - | −18% | 20% | 2% | |
Aerobic | 100% | −55% | 100% | 100% | 0% | - | −4% | 100% | −5% | |
Secondary clarifier | - | 30% | - | - | −5% | - | −4% | - | 18% | |
Inclined plate clarifier | - | −20% | 2% | - | −16% | - | −9% | - | 3% | |
Effluent | - | 100% | 33% | - | 16% | - | 99% | - | −3% | |
Plant D | Anaerobic/Hypoxic | - | −183% | −374% | - | - | 100% | 37% | - | 19% |
Aeration | 100% | −79% | 68% | −9% | - | - | −92% | 7% | −33% | |
Grate | - | −129% | 13% | 79% | - | - | −12% | 100% | 21% | |
Anaerobic | 98% | −36% | −397% | −58% | - | 100% | −1112% | - | 45% | |
Aerobic | 100% | −9% | 23% | 100% | - | - | −20% | - | 100% | |
Secondary clarifier | - | −40% | 55% | - | - | −16% | 0% | 100% | - | |
Effluent | - | 0% | - | - | - | 8% | - | - | - | |
Plant E | Anaerobic | 37% | −24% | −187% | −283% | - | - | −1228% | −236% | 4% |
Hypoxic | 100% | −50% | 100% | 100% | - | - | −34% | −9% | 85% | |
Aerobic | - | 2% | - | - | - | - | −1% | 77% | −88% | |
Secondary clarifier | - | 3% | 13% | - | - | - | −1% | 100% | 2% | |
Sand filter | - | −2% | 100% | - | - | - | 20% | - | −18% | |
Effluent | - | 43% | - | - | - | - | −4% | - | 12% |
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Li, Y.; Niu, X.; Yao, C.; Yang, W.; Lu, G. Distribution, Removal, and Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Their Metabolites in Five Sewage Plants. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4729. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234729
Li Y, Niu X, Yao C, Yang W, Lu G. Distribution, Removal, and Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Their Metabolites in Five Sewage Plants. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(23):4729. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234729
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Ying, Xiangming Niu, Chi Yao, Wen Yang, and Guanghua Lu. 2019. "Distribution, Removal, and Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Their Metabolites in Five Sewage Plants" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 23: 4729. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234729