Mapping the Celebrity Endorsement of Branded Food and Beverage Products and Marketing Campaigns in the United States, 1990–2017
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Study Purpose
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Questions and Hypotheses
- RQ1:
- What food and beverage products or brands did celebrities endorse in the US between 1990 and 2017?
- RQ2:
- What proportion of products endorsed by US celebrities do not align with government-recommended nutrition guidelines?
- RQ3:
- What are the associations between the US celebrities’ demographic profiles (i.e., profession, sex, age, and race/ethnicity) and the nutritional profiles of the endorsed food and beverage products or brands?
2.2. Search Strategy and Data Collection
2.3. Data Coding
2.3.1. Coding Celebrity Demographic Information
2.3.2. Coding Food and Beverage Categories
2.3.3. Coding Food and Beverage Products’ Nutritional Profiles
2.4. Data Analyses
3. Results
3.1. RQ1: Celebrity Endorsements of Food and Beverage Products in the US between 1990 and 2017
3.2. RQ2: Comparison between EDNP and Healthy Product Endorsements
3.3. RQ3: Associations between Celebrity Demographic Profiles and Nutritional Profiles of Endorsed Food and Beverage Products or Brands
4. Discussion
4.1. Research Findings and Implications for Policies
4.2. Study Strength and Limitations
4.3. Implications for Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Food and Beverage Categories | FTC 1 | HER 2 and USDA’s Smart Snacks Standards 3 |
---|---|---|
Breakfast cereals | X | |
Dairy products | X | |
Snacks and candy | X | |
Prepared foods and meals | X | |
Quick-service restaurant (QSR) foods | X | |
Fruits and vegetables | X | |
Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) | X | |
Low-calorie beverages (LCBs) | X | |
No-calorie beverages (NCBs) | X | |
Water | X |
Nutrient | Snack | Entrée |
---|---|---|
Calories | 200 calories or less | 350 calories or less |
Sodium | 200 mg or less | 480 mg or less |
Total Fat | 35% of calories or less | 35% of calories or less |
Saturated Fat | Less than 10% of calories | Less than 10% of calories |
Trans Fat | 0 g | 0 g |
Total Sugar | 35% by weight or less | 35% by weight or less |
Demographic Profile | Celebrities, n (%) |
---|---|
Profession category | |
Sports/athlete | 202 (37.3) |
Entertainment | 320 (59.0) |
Other (e.g., chefs, political figures) | 20 (3.7) |
Age 1 | |
Generation Z (17–22 years) | 10 (1.8) |
Millennials (23–36 years) | 211 (38.9) |
Generation X (37–51 years) | 215 (39.7) |
Baby Boomers (52–66 years) | 76 (14.0) |
Silent Generation (67+ years) | 30 (5.5) |
Sex | |
Male | 332 (61.3) |
Female | 210 (38.7) |
Race/ethnicity | |
Black | 138 (25.5) |
White | 338 (62.4) |
Latino(a) | 32 (5.9) |
Asian | 14 (2.6) |
Multi-racial | 20 (3.7) |
Celebrity Demographic Profiles | Food and Beverage Categories, n (%) | Total | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Breakfast Cereal | Dairy Products | Fruits and Vegetables | LCBs | NCBs | Prepared Foods | QSR Foods | Snacks and Candy | SSBs | Water | |||
Race/ethnicity | Black | 6 (2.9) | 33 (15.9) | 33 (15.9) | 4 (1.9) | 3 (1.4) | 6 (2.9) | 26 (12.6) | 19 (9.2) | 69 (33.3) | 8 (3.9) | 207 (100) |
White | 8 (1.9) | 174 (40.9) | 38 (8.9) | 14 (3.3) | 8 (1.9) | 8 (1.9) | 32 (7.5) | 25 (5.9) | 105 (24.7) | 13 (3.1) | 425 (100) | |
Latino(a) | 0 (0.0) | 15 (33.3) | 3 (6.7) | 3 (6.7) | 3 (6.7) | 0 (0) | 6 (13.3) | 2 (4.4) | 12 (26.7) | 1 (2.2) | 45 (100) | |
Asian | 0 (0.0) | 4 (21.1) | 1 (5.3) | 1 (5.3) | 2 (10.5) | 2 (10.5) | 3 (15.8) | 3 (15.8) | 3 (15.8) | 0 (0) | 19 (100) | |
Multi-racial | 1 (2.8) | 5 (13.9) | 8 (22.2) | 4 (11.1) | 1 (2.8) | 1 (2.8) | 4 (11.1) | 2 (5.6) | 7 (19.4) | 3 (8.3) | 36 (100) | |
Sex | Male | 11 (2.4) | 120 (26.3) | 56 (12.3) | 14 (3.1) | 8 (1.8) | 12 (2.6) | 48 (10.5) | 30 (6.6) | 149 (32.6) | 9 (2.0) | 457 (100) |
Female | 4 (1.5) | 111 (40.4) | 27 (9.8) | 12 (4.4) | 9 (3.3) | 5 (1.8) | 23 (8.4) | 21 (7.6) | 47 (17.1) | 16 (5.8) | 275 (100) | |
Profession category | Athlete | 12 (3.9) | 59 (19.3) | 52 (17.0) | 8 (2.6) | 6 (2.0) | 5 (1.6) | 41 (13.4) | 22 (7.2) | 96 (31.4) | 5 (1.6) | 306 (100) |
Entertainer | 3 (0.7) | 169 (41.9) | 27 (6.7) | 18 (4.5) | 10 (2.5) | 6 (1.5) | 25 (6.2) | 28 (6.9) | 100 (24.8) | 17 (4.2) | 403 (100) | |
Other | 0 (0.0) | 3 (13.0) | 4 (17.4) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (4.3) | 6 (26.1) | 5 (21.7) | 1 (4.3) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (13.0) | 23 (100) | |
Age | Generation Z (17–22 years) | 2 (16.7) | 2 (16.7) | 4 (33.3) | 2 (16.7) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (8.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (8.3) | 12 (100) |
Millennials (23–36 years) | 6 (2.0) | 58 (18.9) | 54 (17.6) | 9 (2.9) | 10 (3.3) | 5 (1.6) | 28 (9.1) | 31 (10.1) | 99 (32.2) | 7 (2.3) | 307 (100) | |
Generation X (37–51 years) | 6 (2.0) | 91 (30.8) | 21 (7.1) | 11 (3.7) | 4 (1.4) | 8 (2.7) | 36 (12.2) | 17 (5.8) | 88 (29.8) | 13 (4.4) | 295 (100) | |
Baby Boomers (52–66 year) | 1 (1.2) | 55 (67.1) | 4 (4.9) | 3 (3.7) | 3 (3.7) | 4 (4.9) | 4 (4.9) | 1 (1.2) | 5 (6.1) | 2 (2.4) | 82 (100) | |
Silent Generation (67+ years) | 0 (0.0) | 25 (69.4) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (5.6) | 2 (5.6) | 4 (11.1) | 2 (5.6) | 36 (100) |
Alignments with the Smart Snacks Standards | n | Percentage | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Endorsements for products or brands aligned | 172 | 33.7 | <0.001 * |
Endorsements for products or brands not aligned | 338 | 66.3 | |
Endorsed products or brands aligned | 39 | 32.8 | <0.001 * |
Endorsed products or brands not aligned | 80 | 67.2 | |
Celebrities only associated with endorsements aligned | 119 | 33.4 | <0.001 * |
Celebrities associated with endorsements not aligned | 237 | 66.6 |
Celebrity Demographic Profiles | Alignments with the USDA’s Smart Snacks Standards [13] | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aligned | Not Aligned | χ2 | Logistic Regression | |||||||
Count | Column % | Row % | Count | Column % | Row % | p-Value | Odds Ratio | p-Value | ||
Profession category | Sports/athlete | 86 | 50.0 | 34.3 | 165 | 48.8 | 65.7 | 0.774 | ||
Entertainer | 78 | 45.3 | 32.6 | 161 | 47.6 | 67.4 | 1.169 | 0.471 | ||
Other | 8 | 4.7 | 40.0 | 12 | 3.6 | 60.0 | 1.146 | 0.970 | ||
Sex | Male | 104 | 60.5 | 30.3 | 239 | 70.7 | 69.7 | 0.020 * | 1.546 | 0.041 * |
Female | 68 | 39.5 | 40.7 | 99 | 29.3 | 59.3 | ||||
Age | Millennial (23–36 years) | 91 | 52.9 | 35.5 | 165 | 48.8 | 64.5 | 0.002 * | ||
Generation Z (17–22 years) | 8 | 4.7 | 80.0 | 2 | 0.6 | 20.0 | 7.19 | 0.015 * | ||
Generation X (37–51 years) | 56 | 32.6 | 27.3 | 149 | 44.1 | 72.7 | 0.717 | 0.126 | ||
Baby Boomer (52–66 years) | 14 | 8.1 | 50.0 | 14 | 4.1 | 50.0 | 2.096 | 0.088 | ||
Silent Generation (67+ years) | 3 | 1.7 | 27.3 | 8 | 2.4 | 72.7 | 0.764 | 0.704 | ||
Race/ethnicity | Black | 56 | 32.6 | 32.6 | 119 | 35.2 | 68.0 | 0.184 | ||
White | 83 | 48.3 | 32.5 | 172 | 50.9 | 67.5 | 1.021 | 0.924 | ||
Latino(a) | 10 | 5.8 | 30.3 | 23 | 6.8 | 69.7 | 0.918 | 0.842 | ||
Asian | 6 | 3.5 | 40.0 | 9 | 2.7 | 60.0 | 1.827 | 0.292 | ||
Multi-racial | 17 | 9.9 | 53.1 | 15 | 4.4 | 46.9 | 2.349 | 0.033 * |
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Share and Cite
Zhou, M.; Rajamohan, S.; Hedrick, V.; Rincón-Gallardo Patiño, S.; Abidi, F.; Polys, N.; Kraak, V. Mapping the Celebrity Endorsement of Branded Food and Beverage Products and Marketing Campaigns in the United States, 1990–2017. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 3743. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193743
Zhou M, Rajamohan S, Hedrick V, Rincón-Gallardo Patiño S, Abidi F, Polys N, Kraak V. Mapping the Celebrity Endorsement of Branded Food and Beverage Products and Marketing Campaigns in the United States, 1990–2017. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(19):3743. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193743
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhou, Mi, Srijith Rajamohan, Valisa Hedrick, Sofia Rincón-Gallardo Patiño, Faiz Abidi, Nicholas Polys, and Vivica Kraak. 2019. "Mapping the Celebrity Endorsement of Branded Food and Beverage Products and Marketing Campaigns in the United States, 1990–2017" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 19: 3743. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193743
APA StyleZhou, M., Rajamohan, S., Hedrick, V., Rincón-Gallardo Patiño, S., Abidi, F., Polys, N., & Kraak, V. (2019). Mapping the Celebrity Endorsement of Branded Food and Beverage Products and Marketing Campaigns in the United States, 1990–2017. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(19), 3743. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193743