Air Pollution, Noise, Blue Space, and Green Space and Premature Mortality in Barcelona: A Mega Cohort
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Natural Space Assessment
2.3. Air Pollution Assessment
2.4. Noise Assessment
2.5. Mortality
2.6. Covariate Data
2.7. Linkage and Ethics Approval
2.8. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
Strength and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Exposure | Model A | Model B | Model C | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | |
NDVI_census300 (2013, satellite data) (0.1 units) | 0.96 (0.92,1.00) | 0.058 | 0.90 (0.87,0.94) | 0.000 | 0.92 (0.88,0.96) | 0.000 |
% green spaces within census + 300 m buffer (10% increase) | 1.03 (1.01,1.04) | 0.000 | 1.00 (0.99,1.02) | 0.560 | 1.01 (0.99,1.02) | 0.210 |
% blue spaces within census + 300 m buffer (1% increase) | 1.06 (1.04,1.09) | 0.000 | 1.03 (1.01,1.06) | 0.006 | 1.03 (1.01,1.06) | 0.006 |
Mean annual concentration of NO2 (5 μg/m3) | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.002 | 1.01 (1.01,1.02) | 0.000 | 1.01 (1.01,1.02) | 0.000 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 (5 μg/m3) | 0.99 (0.96,1.02) | 0.610 | 1.04 (1.01,1.08) | 0.005 | 1.03 (1.00,1.06) | 0.054 |
Mean annual concentration of PM10 (10 μg/m3) | 0.98 (0.95,1.01) | 0.150 | 1.01 (0.98,1.04) | 0.360 | 1.00 (0.97,1.03) | 0.990 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 Absorbance (BC) (1 × 10−5 m−1) | 1.02 (0.99,1.04) | 0.260 | 1.04 (1.01,1.07) | 0.006 | 1.03 (1.00,1.06) | 0.039 |
Daily noise average level 2012 (5 dB(A)) | 0.97 (0.95,0.99) | 0.000 | 1.0 (0.99,1.03) | 0.530 | 1.00 (0.99,1.02) | 0.660 |
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Characteristics | Barcelona Subjects n = 79,2649 (%) |
---|---|
Age at baseline; mean (SD) | 50,9 (18,3) |
Gender | |
Males | 416,943 (52,6) |
Females | 375,706 (47,4) |
Smoking | |
Non-smokers | 595,328 (75,1) |
Smokers | 141,732 (17,9) |
Ex-smokers | 55,589 (7,0) |
Social economic status (SES) (MEDEA) | |
U1 Least deprived | 266,907 (33,7) |
U2 | 199,301 (25,1) |
U3 | 124,029 (15,7) |
U4 | 99,852 (12,6) |
U5 Most deprived | 102,560 (12,9) |
Movers | |
No | 714,548 (90.2) |
Yes | 38,943 (4.9) |
Missing | 39,158 (4.9) |
Exposures | GM (95% CI) | p25–p75 |
---|---|---|
NDVI_census300 (2013, satellite data) | 0.13 (0.13, 0.13) | 0.12–0.15 |
Percentage of green spaces within census + 300 m buffer (%) | 3.69 (3.67, 3.70) | 0.00–6.00 |
Percentage of blue spaces within census + 300 m buffer (%) | 0.31 (0.31, 0.31) | 0.00–0.11 |
Mean annual concentration of NO2 (μg/m³) | 53.42 (53.40, 53.45) | 48.18–59.70 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 (μg/m³) | 16.08 (16.07, 16.08) | 14.95–17.72 |
Mean annual concentration of PM10 (μg/m³) | 38.29 (38.28, 38.30) | 35.86–41.26 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 Absorbance (BC) (10−5 m−1) | 2.64 (2.64, 2.64) | 2.37–2.91 |
Mean annual road traffic noise level (dB(A)) | 64.34 (64.53, 64.55) | 62.21–67.28 |
Exposure | % Green Space | % Blue Space | NO2 | PM2.5 | PM10 | PM2.5 absorbance | Noise | NDVI | SES |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Green Space | 1 | ||||||||
% Blue Space | 0.12 | 1 | |||||||
NO2 | −0.59 | −0.12 | 1 | ||||||
PM2.5 | −0.56 | 0.02 | 0.82 | 1 | |||||
PM10 | −0.60 | −0.04 | 0.82 | 0.77 | 1 | ||||
PM2.5 absorbance | −0.47 | −0.06 | 0.90 | 0.87 | 0.77 | 1 | |||
Noise | −0.24 | −0.08 | 0.31 | 0.44 | 0.28 | 0.39 | 1 | ||
NDVI | 0.79 | 0.01 | −0.57 | −0.60 | −0.50 | −0.46 | −0.25 | 1 | |
SES | 0.28 | 0.13 | −0.14 | −0.29 | −0.22 | −0.17 | 0.19 | 0.19 | 1 |
Exposure | Model A | Model B | Model C | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | |
NDVI_census300 (2013, satellite data) (0.1 units) | 0.97 (0.93,1.01) | 0.130 | 0.91 (0.87,0.95) | 0.000 | 0.92 (0.89,0.97) | 0.001 |
% green spaces within census + 300 m buffer (10% increase) | 1.03 (1.02,1.04) | 0.000 | 1.01 (0.99,1.02) | 0.470 | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.170 |
% blue spaces within census + 300 m buffer (1% increase) | 1.07 (1.04,1.09) | 0.000 | 1.03 (1.01,1.06) | 0.004 | 1.04 (1.01,1.06) | 0.004 |
Mean annual concentration of NO2 (5 μg/m3) | 1.01 (1.00,1.01) | 0.010 | 1.01 (1.01,1.02) | 0.000 | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.001 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 (5 μg/m3) | 0.99 (0.96,1.02) | 0.380 | 1.04 (1.01,1.07) | 0.012 | 1.03 (0.99,1.06) | 0.100 |
Mean annual concentration of PM10 (10 μg/m3) | 0.97 (0.94,1.00) | 0.090 | 1.01 (0.98,1.04) | 0.510 | 1.00 (0.97,1.03) | 0.790 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 Absorbance (BC) (1 × 10−5 m−1) | 1.01 (0.98,1.04) | 0.480 | 1.03 (1.01,1.06) | 0.017 | 1.02 (1.00,1.05) | 0.089 |
Daily noise average level 2012 (5 dB(A)) | 0.97 (0.95,0.98) | 0.000 | 1.00 (0.99,1.02) | 0.670 | 1.00 (0.98,1.03) | 0.820 |
Exposure | MEDEA Index U1–U2 (n = 466,208) Least Deprived | MEDEA Index U3–U5 (n = 326,441) Most Deprived | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model D | Model E | Model D | Model E | |||||
HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | |
NDVI_census300 (0.1 units) | 0.92 (0.86,0.99) | 0.017 | 0.93 (0.88,1.00) | 0.054 | 0.92 (0.88,0.98) | 0.008 | 0.94 (0.89,1.00) | 0.038 |
% green spaces within census + 300 m buffer (10% increase) | 1.01 (0.98,1.04) | 0.570 | 1.01 (0.98,1.03) | 0.370 | 1.02 (1.00,1.03) | 0.048 | 1.02 (1.00,1.03) | 0.016 |
% blue spaces within census + 300 m buffer (1% increase) | 0.98 (0.92,1.04) | 0.440 | 0.98 (0.92,1.04) | 0.470 | 1.07 (1.04,1.09) | 0.000 | 1.07 (1.04,1.09) | 0.000 |
Mean annual concentration of NO2 (5 μg/m3) | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.120 | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.220 | 1.02 (1.01,1.02) | 0.000 | 1.01 (1.01,1.02) | 0.001 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 (5 μg/m3) | 1.00 (0.95,1.04) | 0.930 | 0.99 (0.95,1.03) | 0.690 | 1.06 (1.02,1.11) | 0.005 | 1.04 (1.00,1.09) | 0.047 |
Mean annual concentration of PM10 (10 μg/m3) | 0.96 (0.91,1.00) | 0.076 | 0.95 (0.90,0.99) | 0.024 | 1.04 (1.00,1.08) | 0.066 | 1.02 (0.98,1.06) | 0.290 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 Absorbance (BC) (1 × 10−5 m−1) | 1.00 (0.96,1.04) | 0.990 | 1.00 (0.96,1.03) | 0.870 | 1.07 (1.03,1.12) | 0.000 | 1.06 (1.02,1.11) | 0.005 |
Day time noise average level 2012 (5 dB(A)) | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.950 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.900 | 0.99 (0.96,1.02) | 0.500 | 0.99 (0.96,1.02) | 0.420 |
Pollutants | Model A | Model B | Model C | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | HR (95% CI) | p-Value 1 | |
Model 1: PM2.5 and noise | ||||||
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 (5 μg/m3) | 1.02 (0.98,1.05) | 0.310 | 1.04 (1.01,1.08) | 0.012 | 1.03 (0.99,1.06) | 0.098 |
Daily noise average level (5 dB(A)) | 0.96 (0.94,0.98) | 0.000 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.660 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.740 |
Model 2: NO2 and noise | ||||||
Mean annual concentration of NO2 (5 μg/m3) | 1.01 (1.01,1.02) | 0.000 | 1.01 (1.01,1.02) | 0.000 | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.001 |
Daily noise average level (5 dB(A)) | 0.95 (0.94,0.97) | 0.000 | 0.99 (0.97,1.01) | 0.510 | 0.99 (0.97,1.01) | 0.530 |
Model 3: NDVI, PM2.5 and noise | ||||||
NDVI_census300 (0.1 units) | 0.93 (0.89,0.99) | 0.012 | 0.91 (0.87,0.96) | 0.001 | 0.92 (0.88,0.97) | 0.002 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 (5 μg/m3) | 0.99 (0.95,1.03) | 0.580 | 1.00 (0.96,1.04) | 0.840 | 0.99 (0.95,1.03) | 0.770 |
Daily noise average level (5 dB(A)) | 0.96 (0.94,0.98) | 0.000 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.700 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.770 |
Model 4: NDVI, NO2 and noise | ||||||
NDVI_census300 (0.1 units) | 0.99 (0.93,1.04) | 0.570 | 0.94 (0.89,0.99) | 0.016 | 0.95 (0.90,1.00) | 0,046 |
Mean annual concentration of NO2 (5 μg/m3) | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.001 | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.030 | 1.01 (1.00,1.01) | 0,087 |
Daytime noise average level (5 dB(A)) | 0.95 (0.94,0.97) | 0.000 | 0.99 (0.97,1.01) | 0.450 | 0.99 (0.97,1.01) | 0,470 |
Model 5: NDVI and noise | ||||||
NDVI_census300 (0.1 units) | 0.94 (0.90,0.98) | 0.008 | 0.91 (0.87,0.95) | 0.000 | 0.92 (0.89,0.97) | 0.001 |
Daytime noise average level (5 dB(A)) | 0.96 (0.94,0.98) | 0.000 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.730 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.700 |
Model 6: NDVI and NO2 | ||||||
NDVI_census300 (0.1 units) | 1.00 (0.95,1.05) | 0.930 | 0.94 (0.89,0.99) | 0.017 | 0.95 (0.90,1.00) | 0.050 |
Mean annual concentration of NO2 (5 μg/m3) | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.039 | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.039 | 1.01 (1.00,1.01) | 0.110 |
Model 7: NDVI and PM2.5 | ||||||
NDVI_census300 (0.1 units) | 0.93 (0.89,0.98) | 0.011 | 0.91 (0.87,0.96) | 0.001 | 0.92 (0.88,0.97) | 0.002 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 (5 μg/m3) | 0.96 (0.92,1.00) | 0.027 | 1.00 (0.96,1.04) | 0.930 | 0.99 (0.95,1.03) | 0.700 |
Model 8: PM2.5 absorbance and noise | ||||||
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 absorbance (BC) (1 × 10−5 m−1) | 1.04 (1.01,1.07) | 0.010 | 1.03 (0.99,1.06) | 0.098 | 1.03 (1.00,1.06) | 0.085 |
Daytime noise average level (5 dB(A)) | 0.96 (0.94,0.97) | 0.000 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.740 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.720 |
Model 9: NDVI, PM2.5 absorbance and noise | ||||||
NDVI_census300 (0.1 units) | 0.96 (0.91,1.00) | 0.071 | 1.01 (1.00,1.02) | 0.001 | 0.93 (0.89,0.97) | 0.003 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 absorbance (BC) (1 × 10−5 m−1) | 1.03 (0.99,1.06) | 0.099 | 0.99 (0.97,1.01) | 0.530 | 1.01 (0.97,1.04) | 0.710 |
Daytime noise average level (5 dB(A)) | 0.96 (0.94,0.97) | 0.000 | 0.92 (0.88,0.97) | 0.002 | 1.00 (0.97,1.02) | 0.630 |
Model 10: NDVI and PM2.5 absorbance | ||||||
NDVI_census300 (0.1 units) | 0.97 (0.92,1.01) | 0.170 | 0.99 (0.95,1.03) | 0.770 | 0.93 (0.89,0.97) | 0.003 |
Mean annual concentration of PM2.5 absorbance (BC) (1 × 10−5 m−1) | 1.00 (0.97,1.03) | 0.990 | 1.00 (0.98,1.02) | 0.770 | 1.00 (0.97,1.03) | 0.810 |
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Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J.; Gascon, M.; Martinez, D.; Ponjoan, A.; Blanch, J.; Garcia-Gil, M.d.M.; Ramos, R.; Foraster, M.; Mueller, N.; Espinosa, A.; et al. Air Pollution, Noise, Blue Space, and Green Space and Premature Mortality in Barcelona: A Mega Cohort. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2405. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112405
Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Gascon M, Martinez D, Ponjoan A, Blanch J, Garcia-Gil MdM, Ramos R, Foraster M, Mueller N, Espinosa A, et al. Air Pollution, Noise, Blue Space, and Green Space and Premature Mortality in Barcelona: A Mega Cohort. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(11):2405. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112405
Chicago/Turabian StyleNieuwenhuijsen, Mark J., Mireia Gascon, David Martinez, Anna Ponjoan, Jordi Blanch, Maria del Mar Garcia-Gil, Rafel Ramos, Maria Foraster, Natalie Mueller, Ana Espinosa, and et al. 2018. "Air Pollution, Noise, Blue Space, and Green Space and Premature Mortality in Barcelona: A Mega Cohort" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 11: 2405. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112405