Environmental Exposure to Dioxins, Dibenzofurans, Bisphenol A, and Phthalates in Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder Living near the Gulf of Mexico
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. General Description
2.2. Assessment of Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans (Dx/F)
2.3. Assessment of Bisphenol A (BPA) and Phthalate Ester Metabolites (PEMs)
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Dioxin and Dibenzofuran Concentrations in Serum of Children Ages 2–8 Living near the Gulf of Mexico
4.2. Routes of Exposure for Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins (CDDs)
4.3. BPA and Phthalate Ester Metabolite Concentrations in Urine of Children Ages 2–8 along the Gulf of Mexico
4.4. Routes of Exposure to PEMs
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Categories | ASD Case (n = 30) N (%) | TD Control (n = 10) N (%) | p-Values |
---|---|---|---|---|
Child’s sex | Male | 25 (83.3) | 7 (70.0) | 0.37 |
Child’s age (months) | Age < 72 | 16 (53.3) | 5 (50.0) | 0.85 |
Age ≥ 72 | 14 (46.7) | 5 (50.0) | ||
Child’s race | African American | 13 (43.3) | 3 (30.0) | 0.46 |
White | 17 (56.7) | 7 (70.0) | ||
Maternal age (at child’s birth) a | <35 years | 21 (72.4) | 9 (90.0) | 0.28 |
≥35 years | 8 (27.6) | 1 (10.0) | ||
Paternal age (at child’s birth) b | <35 years | 15 (55.6) | 7 (70.0) | 0.43 |
≥35 years | 12 (44.4) | 3 (30.0) | ||
Maternal race a | African American | 13 (44.8) | 3 (30.0) | 0.41 |
White | 16 (55.2) | 7 (70.0) | ||
Paternal race c | African American | 13 (46.4) | 3 (30.0) | 0.37 |
White | 15 (53.6) | 7 (70.0) | ||
Maternal education (at child’s birth) a | Up to high school † | 14 (48.3) | 3 (30.0) | 0.32 |
Beyond high school †† | 15 (51.7) | 7 (70.0) | ||
Paternal education (at child’s birth) d | Up to high school † | 11 (40.7) | 4 (50.0) | 0.64 |
Beyond high school †† | 16 (59.3) | 4 (50.0) | ||
Socioeconomic status (SES) c | Home ownership | 14 (50.0) | 7 (70.0) | 0.28 |
Exposure Category | Analyte | LoD Range (pg/g) | Below LoD (N (%)) | NHANES Mean (pg/g) * | NHANES LoD (pg/g) * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dioxins | 2,3,7,8-TCDD | 3.36–12.4 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 3.8 |
1,2,3,7,8-PECDD | 3.36–12.4 | 37 (92.5) | <LoD | 4.5 | |
1,2,3,4,7,8-HXCDD | 8.41–31.0 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 11.9 | |
1,2,3,6,7,8-HXCDD | 8.41–31.0 | 37 (92.5) | <LoD | 12.3 | |
1,2,3,7,8,9-HXCDD | 8.41–31.0 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 12.3 | |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HPCDD | 8.41–31.0 | 24 (60.0) | 16.7 | 13.0 | |
OCDD | 8.41–31.0 | 0 (0.0) | <LoD | 218.0 | |
Total tetra-dioxins | 3.36–12.4 | 40 (100.0) | NR | NR | |
Total penta-dioxins | 3.36–12.4 | 37 (92.5) | NR | NR | |
Total hexa-dioxins | 8.41–31.0 | 38 (95.0) | NR | NR | |
Total hepta-dioxins | 8.41–31.0 | 29 (72.5) | NR | NR | |
Dibenzofurans | 2,3,7,8-TCDF | 3.36–12.4 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 6.0 |
1,2,3,7,8-PECDF | 3.36–12.4 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 7.1 | |
2,3,4,7,8-PECDF | 3.36–12.4 | 30 (75.0) | <LoD | 6.8 | |
1,2,3,4,7,8-HXCDF | 8.41–31.0 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 7.4 | |
1,2,3,6,7,8-HXCDF | 8.41–31.0 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 7.9 | |
1,2,3,7,8,9-HXCDF | 8.41–31.0 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 8.3 | |
2,3,4,6,7,8-HXCDF | 8.41–31.0 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 8.2 | |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HPCDF | 8.41–31.0 | 38 (95.0) | 9.36 | 8.6 | |
1,2,3,4,7,8,9-HPCDF | 8.41–31.0 | 40 (100.0) | <LoD | 8.6 | |
OCDF | 8.41–31.0 | 39 (97.5) | <LoD | 12.0 | |
Total tetra-furans | 3.36–12.4 | 40 (100.0) | NR | NR | |
Total penta-furans | 3.36–12.4 | 30 (75.0) | NR | NR | |
Total hexa-furans | 8.41–31.0 | 40 (100.0) | NR | NR | |
Total hepta-furans | 8.41–31.0 | 38 (95.0) | NR | NR |
Exposure Category | Analyte | LoD Range (ng/mL) | Below LoD N (%) | Adjusted for Creatinine (µg/g) | NHANES † Adjusted for Creatinine (µg/g) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ASD Case | TD Control | p-Value ** | ||||||||
Mean * (SD) | Range | Mean * (SD) | Range | Mean | LoD * | |||||
BPA | Bisphenol A | 0.25–0.34 | 6 (18.2) | 1.33 (2.10) | 0.26–6.72 | 0.93 (2.43) | 0.16–3.13 | 0.27 | 2.27 ** | 0.4 |
Mono Phthalate Esters | Monomethyl phthalate (MMP) | 0.98–8.61 | 26 (78.8) | NR | 0.64–26.50 | NR | 0.26–18.89 | NR | 3.31 | 0.5 |
Monoethyl phthalate (MEP) | 0.98–4.08 | 3 (9.1) | 28.93 (1.86) | 7.77–84.00 | 37.61 (7.58) | 1.28–2108.87 | 0.57 | 33.4 | 0.6 | |
Monobutyl phthalate (MBP) [sum of mono-n-butyl (MnBP) and mono-iso-butyl phthalate (MiBP)] | 0.98–3.86 | 0 (0.0) | 41.82 (1.88) | 12.33–308.73 | 41.49 (2.60) | 19.48–334.59 | 0.98 | 27.7 (15.9 + 11.8) †† | 0.4, 0.2 †† | |
Monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) | 0.98–2.08 | 1 (3.0) | 19.01 (2.38) | 3.20–96.83 | 12.55 (3.07) | 1.51–70.58 | 0.28 | 12.5 | 0.3 | |
Mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) (DEHP Metabolite) | 0.98–1.03 | 23 (69.7) | NR | 0.43–21.39 | NR | 0.55–5.54 | NR | 2.02 | 0.5 | |
Mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (DEHP Metabolite) (MEOHP) | 0.99–4.59 | 0 (0.0) | 9.76 (2.52) | 1.93–117.99 | 8.23 (2.13) | 3.93–39.26 | 0.64 | 9.93 | 0.2 | |
Mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (DEHP Metabolite) (MEHHP) | 0.98–3.96 | 2 (6.1) | 14.94 (2.45) | 2.25–144.36 | 11.08 (3.22) | 0.91–46.86 | 0.46 | 14.9 | 0.2 | |
Mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP) | 1.02–2.83 | 5 (15.2) | 4.04 (1.74) | 1.74–10.63 | 4.49 (1.75) | 2.16–9.60 | 0.64 | 4.79 | 0.2 | |
Mono-cyclohexyl phthalate (MCHP) | 0.98–1.57 | 32 (97.0) | NR | 0.43–7.77 | NR | 0.26–1.28 | NR | <LoD | 0.4 | |
Mono-iso-nonyl Phthalate (MiNP) | 0.98–1.16 | 33 (100.0) | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | <LoD | 0.6 |
Exposure Variables | Category | Yes | No | p-Value b,c | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean * (SD) | N | Mean * (SD) | N | |||
Imported Seafood Consumption | Ate salt water fish | 79.26 (1.67) | 8 | 84.34 (2.18) | 31 | 0.79 |
Ate fresh water fish (salmon, tilapia, catfish) | 113.81 (2.43) † | 11 | 73.65 (1.88) | 28 | 0.11 | |
Ate sardine, mackerel (canned fish) | 263.75 (9.75) † | 2 | 78.24 (1.79) | 37 | 0.02 | |
Ate tuna (canned fish) | 123.33 (2.88) † | 8 | 75.24 (1.82) | 31 | 0.10 | |
Ate shrimp | 115.03 (2.46) † | 11 | 73.34 (1.86) | 28 | 0.09 | |
Ate shellfish (lobster, crab) | 95.04 (2.06) | 3 | 82.36 (2.09) | 36 | 0.83 | |
Fresh Seafood Consumption | Ate farm-raised tilapia or catfish | 107.13 (3.13) † | 7 | 78.80 (1.85) | 32 | 0.33 |
Ate lake/pond fish (catfish, crappie) | 59.14 (1.43) | 3 | 85.68 (2.11) | 36 | 0.45 | |
Ate bay fish (speckled trout, redfish, flounder) | 87.48 (1.69) | 5 | 82.67 (2.14) | 34 | 0.92 | |
Ate river fish (bass, trout) | 74.68 (3.01) | 3 | 84.03 (2.03) | 36 | 0.85 | |
Ate offshore fish (tuna, snapper, whiting) | 74.02 (1.31) | 5 | 84.72 (2.17) | 34 | 0.66 | |
Ate shellfish (lobster, crab, crawfish) | 124.58 (2.66) † | 12 | 69.62 (1.66) | 27 | 0.02 | |
Ate mussels (clams, oysters, scallops) | 153.21 (6.46) † | 3 | 79.14 (1.79) | 36 | 0.14 | |
Meat/organ Consumption (as main dish) | Beef | 87.17 (2.15) | 30 | 71.48 (1.84) | 9 | 0.53 |
Pork | 89.14 (2.13) | 30 | 66.36 (1.83) | 9 | 0.31 | |
Animal fat (used for cooking) | 105.43 (2.87) | 10 | 76.76 (1.78) | 29 | 0.20 | |
Dairy Product and Egg Consumption | Milk | 76.07 (1.81) | 35 | 183.76 (3.78) † | 4 | 0.01 |
Cheese | 81.32 (1.98) | 33 | 94.84 (2.76) | 6 | 0.56 | |
Yogurt | 84.51 (2.10) | 29 | 79.78 (2.07) | 10 | 0.86 | |
Eggs | 83.73 (2.09) | 28 | 82.11 (2.10) | 11 | 0.98 |
Exposure Variables | Category | Yes | No | p-Value b,c | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean * (SD) | N | Mean* (SD) | N | |||
Bottled water used for drinking | 1.07 (2.30) | 13 | 1.21 (1.95) | 18 | 0.64 | |
Canned fish consumption | Tuna | 1.79 (1.83) | 5 | 1.05 (2.07) | 26 | 0.10 |
Juices/soft drinks | Juices (e.g., orange, tomato, etc.) | 1.22 (2.06) | 25 | 0.90 (2.15) | 6 | 0.42 |
Flavored beverages | 1.18 (2.12) | 26 | 1.01 (1.91) | 5 | 0.50 | |
Soft drinks (Soda, Coke/Pepsi) | 0.82 (1.95) | 19 | 1.96 (1.59) | 12 | <0.01 | |
Hot tea (e.g., Black, Earl Grey, Green) | 1.10 (1.79) | 4 | 1.16 (2.13) | 27 | 0.95 | |
Iced Tea | 1.14 (1.91) | 14 | 1.16 (2.25) | 17 | 0.88 | |
Canned food (vegetables, soups, seafood, etc.) | 1.12 (2.27) | 23 | 1.23 (1.49) | 8 | 0.89 |
Exposure Variables | Category | Yes | No | p-Value b,c | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean * (SD) | N | Mean * (SD) | N | |||
Bottled water used for drinking | 7.36 (2.01) | 13 | 11.68 (2.60) | 18 | 0.15 | |
Canned fish consumption | Tuna | 9.32 (1.31) | 5 | 9.68 (2.59) | 26 | 0.99 |
Juices/soft drinks | Juices (e.g., orange, tomato, etc.) | 8.31 (2.06) | 25 | 17.79 (3.45) | 6 | 0.05 |
Flavored beverages | 9.48 (2.02) | 26 | 10.41 (5.09) | 5 | 0.95 | |
Soft drinks (Soda, Coke/Pepsi) | 8.78 (2.02) | 19 | 11.12 (3.05) | 12 | 0.53 | |
Hot tea (e.g., Black, Earl Grey, Green) | 8.75 (2.31) | 4 | 9.76 (2.45) | 27 | 0.92 | |
Iced Tea | 10.89 (2.02) | 14 | 8.70 (2.74) | 17 | 0.52 | |
Canned food (vegetables, soups, seafood, etc.) | 9.75 (2.04) | 23 | 9.28 (3.67) | 8 | 0.81 |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Rahbar, M.H.; Swingle, H.M.; Christian, M.A.; Hessabi, M.; Lee, M.; Pitcher, M.R.; Campbell, S.; Mitchell, A.; Krone, R.; Loveland, K.A.; et al. Environmental Exposure to Dioxins, Dibenzofurans, Bisphenol A, and Phthalates in Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder Living near the Gulf of Mexico. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1425. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111425
Rahbar MH, Swingle HM, Christian MA, Hessabi M, Lee M, Pitcher MR, Campbell S, Mitchell A, Krone R, Loveland KA, et al. Environmental Exposure to Dioxins, Dibenzofurans, Bisphenol A, and Phthalates in Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder Living near the Gulf of Mexico. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(11):1425. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111425
Chicago/Turabian StyleRahbar, Mohammad H., Hanes M. Swingle, MacKinsey A. Christian, Manouchehr Hessabi, MinJae Lee, Meagan R. Pitcher, Sean Campbell, Amy Mitchell, Ryan Krone, Katherine A. Loveland, and et al. 2017. "Environmental Exposure to Dioxins, Dibenzofurans, Bisphenol A, and Phthalates in Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder Living near the Gulf of Mexico" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 11: 1425. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111425