Air Pollution and Dispensed Medications for Asthma, and Possible Effect Modifiers Related to Mental Health and Socio-Economy: A Longitudinal Cohort Study of Swedish Children and Adolescents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area and Cohort
2.2. National Register Data
2.3. Air Pollution Exposure Assessment
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.5. Sensitivity Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bråbäck, L.; Vogt, H.; Hjern, A. Migration and asthma medication in international adoptees and immigrant families in Sweden. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2011, 41, 1108–1115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bråbäck, L.; Forsberg, B. Does traffic exhaust contribute to the development of asthma and allergic sensitization in children: Findings from recent cohort studies. Environ. Health 2009, 8, 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kozyrskyj, A.L.; Bahreinian, S.; Azad, M.B. Early life exposures: Impact on asthma and allergic disease. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2011, 11, 400–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, E.; Fisher, E.B.; Bacharier, L.B.; Strunk, R.C. Socioeconomic Status, Stress, and Immune Markers in Adolescents with Asthma. Psychosom. Med. 2003, 65, 984–992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, E.; Hanson, M.D.; Paterson, L.Q.; Griffin, M.J.; Walker, H.A.; Miller, G.E. Socioeconomic status and inflammatory processes in childhood asthma: The role of psychological stress. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2006, 117, 1014–1020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Douwes, J.; Brooks, C.; Pearce, N. Stress and asthma: Hippocrates revisited. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 2010, 64, 561–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gregory, E.M.; Edith, C. Life Stress and Diminished Expression of Genes Encoding Glucocorticoid Receptor and β2-Adrenergic Receptor in Children with Asthma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 5496–5501. [Google Scholar]
- Sandberg, S.; Paton, J.Y.; Ahola, S.; McCann, D.C.; McGuinness, D.; Hillary, C.R.; Oja, H. The role of acute and chronic stress in asthma attacks in children. Lancet 2000, 356, 982–987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leander, M.; Lampa, E.; Rask-Andersen, A.; Franklin, K.; Gislason, T.; Oudin, A.; Svanes, C.; Torén, K.; Janson, C. Impact of anxiety and depression on respiratory symptoms. Respir. Med. 2014, 108, 1594–1600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Weil, C.M.; Wade, S.L.; Bauman, L.J.; Lynn, H.; Mitchell, H.; Lavigne, J. The relationship between psychosocial factors and asthma morbidity in inner-city children with asthma. Pediatrics 1999, 104, 1274–1281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mogensen, N.; Larsson, H.; Lundholm, C.; Almqvist, C. Association between childhood asthma and ADHD symptoms in adolescence—A prospective population-based twin study. Eur. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2011, 66, 1224–1230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bowatte, G.; Lodge, C.; Lowe, A.; Erbas, B.; Perret, J.; Abramson, M.; Matheson, M.; Dharmage, S. The influence of childhood traffic-related air pollution exposure on asthma, allergy and sensitization: A systematic review and a meta-analysis of birth cohort studies. Allergy 2015, 70, 245–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gehring, U.; Gruzieva, O.; Agius, R.M.; Beelen, R.; Custovic, A.; Cyrys, J.; Eeftens, M.; Flexeder, C.; Fuertes, E.; Heinrich, J.; et al. Air pollution exposure and lung function in children: The ESCAPE project. Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121, 1357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nordling, E.; Berglind, N.; Melén, E.; Emenius, G.; Hallberg, J.; Nyberg, F.; Pershagen, G.; Svartengren, M.; Wickman, M.; Bellander, T. Traffic-related air pollution and childhood respiratory symptoms, function and allergies. Epidemiology 2008, 19, 401–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mölter, A.; Simpson, A.; Berdel, D.; Brunekreef, B.; Custovic, A.; Cyrys, J.; de Jongste, J.; De Vocht, F.; Fuertes, E.; Gehring, U.; et al. A multicentre study of air pollution exposure and childhood asthma prevalence: The ESCAPE project. Eur. Respir. J. 2015, 45, 610–624. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, E.; Schreier, H.; Strunk, R.; Brauer, M. Chronic traffic-related air pollution and stress interact to predict biologic and clinical outcomes in asthma. EHP 2008, 116, 970–975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shankardass, K.; McConnell, R.; Jerrett, M.; Milam, J.; Richardson, J.; Berhane, K. Parental stress increases the effect of traffic-related air pollution on childhood asthma incidence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 12406–12411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Guxens, M.; Sunyer, J. A review of epidemiological studies on neuropsychological effects of air pollution. Swiss Med. Wkly. 2012, 141, w13322. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Sunyer, J.; Esnaola, M.; Alvarez-Pedrerol, M.; Forns, J.; Rivas, I.; López-Vicente, M.; Suades-González, E.; Foraster, M.; Garcia-Esteban, R.; Basagaña, X.; et al. Association between traffic-related air pollution in schools and cognitive development in primary school children: A prospective cohort study. PLoS Med. 2015, 12, e1001792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, H.; Kwong, J.C.; Copes, R.; Tu, K.; Villeneuve, P.J.; van Donkelaar, A.; Hystad, P.; Martin, R.V.; Murray, B.J.; Jessiman, B.; et al. Living near major roads and the incidence of dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis: A population-based cohort study. Lancet 2017, 389, 718–726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oudin, A.; Forsberg, B.; Adolfsson, A.N.; Lind, N.; Modig, L.; Nordin, M.; Nordin, S.; Adolfsson, R.; Nilsson, L.-G. Traffic-related air pollution and dementia incidence in Northern Sweden: A longitudinal study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2016, 124, 306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Power, M.C.; Adar, S.D.; Yanosky, J.D.; Weuve, J. Exposure to air pollution as a potential contributor to cognitive function, cognitive decline, brain imaging, and dementia: A systematic review of epidemiologic research. Neurotoxicology 2016, 56, 235–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Genc, S.; Zadeoglulari, Z.; Fuss, S.H.; Genc, K. The adverse effects of air pollution on the nervous system. J. Toxicol. 2012, 2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peen, J.; Schoevers, R.A.; Beekman, A.T.; Dekker, J. The current status of urban-rural differences in psychiatric disorders. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2010, 121, 84–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Krabbendam, L.; van Os, J. Schizophrenia and Urbanicity: A Major Environmental Influence—Conditional on Genetic Risk. Schizophr. Bull. 2005, 31, 795–799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Oudin, A.; Bråbäck, L.; Åström, D.O.; Strömgren, M.; Forsberg, B. Association between neighbourhood air pollution concentrations and dispensed medication for psychiatric disorders in a large longitudinal cohort of Swedish children and adolescents. BMJ Open 2016, 6, e010004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Becerra, T.A.; Wilhelm, M.; Olsen, J.; Cockburn, M.; Ritz, B. Ambient air pollution and autism in Los Angeles county, California. Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121, 380–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Volk, H.E.; Lurmann, F.; Penfold, B.; Hertz-Picciotto, I.; McConnell, R. Traffic-related air pollution, particulate matter, and autism. JAMA Psychiatry 2013, 70, 71–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Newman, N.C.; Ryan, P.; LeMasters, G.; Levin, L.; Bernstein, D.; Hershey, G.K.K.; Lockey, J.E.; Villareal, M.; Reponen, T.; Grinshpun, S.; et al. Traffic-related air pollution exposure in the first year of life and behavioral scores at 7 years of age. Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121, 731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Forns, J.; Dadvand, P.; Foraster, M.; Alvarez-Pedrerol, M.; Rivas, I.; López-Vicente, M.; Suades-Gonzalez, E.; Garcia-Esteban, R.; Esnaola, M.; Cirach, M.; et al. Traffic-related air pollution, noise at school, and behavioral problems in Barcelona schoolchildren: A cross-sectional study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2016, 124, 529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- McEwen, B.S.; Flier, J.S.; Underhill, L.H. Protective and Damaging Effects of Stress Mediators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1998, 338, 171–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lederbogen, F.; Kirsch, P.; Haddad, L.; Streit, F.; Tost, H.; Schuch, P.; Wust, S.; Pruessner, J.; Rietschel, M.; Deuschle, M.; et al. City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nature 2011, 474, 498–501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lindgren, U.; Nilsson, K.; de Luna, X.; Ivarsson, A. Data resource profile: Swedish microdata research from childhood into lifelong health and welfare (Umeå SIMSAM Lab). Int. J. Epidemiol. 2016, 45, 1075–1075g. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gustafsson, M.; Forsberg, B.; Orru, H.; Åström, S.; Tekie, H.; Sjöberg, K. Quantification of Population Exposure to NO2, PM2.5 and PM10 and Estimated Health Impacts in Sweden 2010; B 2197; IVL: Gothenburg, Sweden, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Sjöberg, K.; Haeger-Eugensson, M.; Forsberg, B.; Åström, S.; Hellsten, S.; Tang, L. Quantification of Population Exposure to Nitrogen Dioxide in Sweden 2005; Report B 1749; IVL: Falaise, France, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Damgaard, A.L.; Hansen, B.M.; Mathiasen, R.; Buchvald, F.; Lange, T.; Greisen, G. Prematurity and prescription asthma medication from childhood to young adulthood: A Danish national cohort study. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0117253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Carlsen, H.K.; Zoëga, H.; Valdimarsdóttir, U.; Gíslason, T.; Hrafnkelsson, B. Hydrogen sulfide and particle matter levels associated with increased dispensing of anti-asthma drugs in Iceland’s capital. Environ. Res. 2012, 113, 33–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Popham, F.; Dibben, C.; Bambra, C. Are health inequalities really not the smallest in the Nordic welfare states? A comparison of mortality inequality in 37 countries. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Stroh, E.; Rittner, R.; Oudin, A.; Ardo, J.; Jakobsson, K.; Bjork, J.; Tinnerberg, H. Measured and modeled personal and environmental NO2 exposure. Popul. Health Metr. 2012, 10, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harju, M.; Keski-Nisula, L.; Georgiadis, L.; Heinonen, S. Parental smoking and cessation during pregnancy and the risk of childhood asthma. BMC Public Health 2016, 16, 428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hollams, E.M.; De Klerk, N.H.; Holt, P.G.; Sly, P.D. Persistent effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy on lung function and asthma in adolescents. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2014, 189, 401–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bråbäck, L.; Björ, O.; Nordahl, G. Early determinants of first hospital admissions for asthma and acute bronchitis among Swedish children. Acta Paediatr. 2003, 92, 27–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Silvestri, M.; Franchi, S.; Pistorio, A.; Petecchia, L.; Rusconi, F. Smoke exposure, wheezing, and asthma development: A systematic review and meta-analysis in unselected birth cohorts. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 2015, 50, 353–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Burke, H.; Leonardi-Bee, J.; Hashim, A.; Pine-Abata, H.; Chen, Y.; Cook, D.G.; Britton, J.R.; McKeever, T.M. Prenatal and passive smoke exposure and incidence of asthma and wheeze: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2012, 129, 735–744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Variables | Categories | Asthma Medication * | Mean NO2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
No | Yes | (µg·m−3) | ||
N | N (%) | |||
Boys | 566,571 | 50,809 (8) | 10.2 | |
Girls | 558,711 | 39,663 (7) | 10.3 | |
Age at baseline | <2 | 303,033 | 56,014 (16) | 11.4 |
2 < 5 | 134,476 | 7466 (5) | 10.0 | |
5 < 10 | 229,546 | 11,037 (5) | 9.7 | |
10 < 15 | 272,821 | 12,576 (4) | 9.6 | |
15–18 | 185,406 | 3379 (2) | 9.8 | |
Smoking early pregnancy | Missing | 184,807 | 11,722 (6) | 11.1 |
No | 813,138 | 69,803 (8) | 10.1 | |
Yes <10 cig per day | 83,406 | 6262 (7) | 9.9 | |
Yes ≥10 cig per day | 43,931 | 2685 (6) | 9.8 | |
Mother’s education | Missing | 95,790 | 6723 (7) | 12.1 |
Elementary school | 124,997 | 10,344 (8) | 11.1 | |
Only upper secondary school or Post-secondary education < 2 years | 453,873 | 36,871 (8) | 9.4 | |
Post-secondary education 2 ≤ 4 years | 336,162 | 27,173 (7) | 10.3 | |
Post-secondary education ≥ 4 years | 114,550 | 9361 (8) | 11.1 | |
Father’s education | Missing | 109,437 | 7320 (6) | 12.0 |
Elementary school | 148,970 | 11,815 (7) | 10.2 | |
Only upper secondary school or Post-secondary education < 2 years | 477,250 | 40,059 (8) | 9.4 | |
Post-secondary education 2 ≤ 4 years | 258,744 | 21,194 (8) | 10.7 | |
Post-secondary education ≥ 4 years | 130,881 | 10,084 (7) | 11.2 | |
Group level education ** | quartile 1 (<14%) | 296,380 | 23,106 (7) | |
Group level education ** | quartile 2 (14–<20%) | 262,997 | 20,879 (7) | 8.9 |
Group level education ** | quartile 3 (20% < 32%) | 292,250 | 24,230 (8) | 9.0 |
Group level education ** | quartile 4 (≥32%) | 273,655 | 22,257 (8) | 14.2 |
Mother unemployed at baseline | No | 1,033,154 | 85,288 (7) | 10.2 |
Yes | 92,128 | 7884 (8) | 10.5 | |
Father unemployed at baseline | No | 1,067,643 | 85,544 (7) | 10.2 |
Yes | 57,639 | 4928 (8) | 11.5 | |
Analeptika (N06) at baseline | No | 1,115,524 | 90,028 (7) | 10.3 |
Yes | 9758 | 444 (4) | 9.5 | |
Neuroleptika (N05) at baseline | No | 1,117,444 | 89,894 (7) | 10.3 |
Yes | 7838 | 578 (7) | 10.1 | |
Mean | Spearman rho | |||
BMI early pregnancy | 23.9 | 24.5 | −0.04 | |
Mother’s income baseline (SEK) | 162,600 | 151,200 | −0.03 | |
Father’s income baseline (SEK) | 280,000 | 267,800 | −0.06 | |
NO2 baseline (µg·m−3) | 10.2 | 10.5 | 1 |
OR | 95% CI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Age-Adjusted | Adjusted 4 | |||
All | 1.05 | 1.04–1.06 | 1.02 | 1.01–1.03 |
Sub–groups | ||||
Mother low education 1 | 1.01 | 0.98–1.05 | 0.99 | (0.95–1.02) |
Mother high education 2 | 1.04 | 1.01–1.06 | 1.05 | 1.02–1.09 |
Low father education 1 | 1.03 | 0.997–1.06 | 0.99 | 0.96–1.027 |
Father high education 2 | 1.03 | 1.00–1.05 | 1.04 | 1.01–1.07 |
Unemployment mother baseline | 1.03 | 1.00–1.07 | 1.00 | 0.97–1.04 |
Unemployment father baseline | 1.06 | 1.02–1.10 | 1.02 | 0.97–1.06 |
Age baseline | ||||
<2 | 1.06 | 1.04–1.07 | 1.02 | 1.01–1.04 |
2 ≤ 5 | 1.05 | 1.01–1.08 | 1.03 | 0.99–1.08 |
5 ≤ 10 | 1.12 | 1.08–1.15 | 1.07 | 1.03–1.11 |
10 ≤ 15 | 1.14 | 1.11–1.17 | 1.07 | 1.03–1.11 |
15–18 | 1.10 | 1.04–1.15 | 1.00 | 0.83–1.20 |
Dispensed neuroleptika (N05) baseline year | 1.07 | 0.95–1.21 | 1.03 | 0.87–1.21 |
Dispensed analeptika (N06) baseline year | 1.05 | 0.92–1.21 | 1.12 | 0.90–1.40 |
Neighborhoodeducation quartile 1 (<14%) 3 | 1.01 | 0.99–1.03 | 0.93 | 0.90–0.96 |
Neighborhoodl education quartile 2 (14–<20%) 3 | 0.96 | 0.94–0.99 | 0.92 | (0.89–0.96) |
Neighborhood education quartile 3 (20% < 32%) 3 | 1.04 | 1.01–1.07 | 1.01 | 0.98–1.04 |
Neighborhood education quartile 4 (≥32%) 3 | 1.05 | 1.03–1.06 | 1.05 | 1.03–1.07 |
Children < 2 years of age | 1.06 | 1.04–1.07 | 1.02 | 1.01–1.04 |
Children ≥ 2 years of age | 1.11 | 1.09–1.13 | 1.06 | 1.04–1.09 |
Stockholm | 1.04 | 1.02–1.06 | 1.02 | 1.00–1.04 |
Skåne | 1.09 | 1.07–1.12 | 1.07 | 1.05–1.10 |
Västra Götaland | 1.02 | 1.01–1.04 | 0.99 | 0.98–1.01 |
Västerbotten | 1.04 | 0.98–1.11 | 1.02 | 0.95–1.10 |
NO2 <15 (µg·m−3) | 0.97 | 0.95–0.99 | 0.93 | 0.91–0.95 |
NO2 ≥15 (µg·m−3) | 1.11 | 1.09–1.14 | 1.09 | 1.07–1.12 |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Oudin, A.; Bråbäck, L.; Oudin Åström, D.; Forsberg, B. Air Pollution and Dispensed Medications for Asthma, and Possible Effect Modifiers Related to Mental Health and Socio-Economy: A Longitudinal Cohort Study of Swedish Children and Adolescents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1392. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111392
Oudin A, Bråbäck L, Oudin Åström D, Forsberg B. Air Pollution and Dispensed Medications for Asthma, and Possible Effect Modifiers Related to Mental Health and Socio-Economy: A Longitudinal Cohort Study of Swedish Children and Adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(11):1392. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111392
Chicago/Turabian StyleOudin, Anna, Lennart Bråbäck, Daniel Oudin Åström, and Bertil Forsberg. 2017. "Air Pollution and Dispensed Medications for Asthma, and Possible Effect Modifiers Related to Mental Health and Socio-Economy: A Longitudinal Cohort Study of Swedish Children and Adolescents" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 11: 1392. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111392