Comparison of Subjective Health Complaints between Chinese and German University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Materials and Methods
2.1.1. Survey and Questionnaire
2.1.2. Variables
2.1.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics of the Sample
Variables | % | † p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Chinese (N = 1853) | German (N = 3306) | |||
Gender | Male | 52.1 | 47.3 | 0.001 |
Female | 47.9 | 52.7 | ||
Father’s education | High | 45.8 | 52.8 | <0.001 |
Low | 54.2 | 47.2 | ||
Having a partner | Yes | 31.4 | 56.0 | <0.001 |
No | 68.6 | 44.0 | ||
Income sufficiency | Sufficient | 81.2 | 58.5 | <0.001 |
Insufficient | 18.8 | 41.5 | ||
Subjective general health | Good | 89.2 | 87.0 | 0.025 |
Poor | 10.8 | 13.0 | ||
Health awareness | High | 67.2 | 45.5 | <0.001 |
Low | 32.8 | 54.5 | ||
Nutrition importance | Important | 89.3 | 91.8 | 0.003 |
Unimportant | 10.7 | 8.2 | ||
Grade importance | Important | 92.8 | 96.2 | <0.001 |
Unimportant | 7.2 | 3.8 | ||
Physical activity | ≥ 3 times a week | 22.7 | 41.3 | <0.001 |
1–2 times a week | 48.8 | 36.2 | ||
Less than once a week | 28.5 | 22.5 | ||
Alcohol consumption | Never | 50.4 | 9.8 | <0.001 |
Less than once a week | 40.6 | 30.4 | ||
At least once a week | 9.0 | 59.8 | ||
Life quality | Good | 39.0 | 57.8 | <0.001 |
Poor | 61.0 | 42.2 | ||
Median (quartile deviation) | ||||
Age | 21.0 (1.5) | 23.0 (2.0) | <0.001 | |
BMI | 20.1 (1.6) | 22.3 (1.9) | <0.001 |
3.2. Data Dimension Reduction
Health Complaint | Chinese | German | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Components | Components | |||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 3 | |
Psychological (4 Items) | Gastrointestinal (3 Items) | Pain/aches (3 Items) | Psychological (4 Items) | Pain/Aches (3 Items) | Gastrointestinal (3 Items) | |
Component eigenvalue | 3.37 | 1.19 | 0.94 | 2.99 | 1.29 | 1.20 |
Percentage of variance explained by component | 36.45% | 12.18% | 9.36% | 31.89% | 13.19% | 12.13% |
Depressive mood | 0.85 | 0.84 | ||||
Mood swings | 0.79 | 0.84 | ||||
Nervousness/anxiety | 0.79 | 0.71 | ||||
Concentration difficulties | 0.66 | 0.56 | ||||
Back/low back pain | −0.87 | 0.87 | ||||
Neck/shoulder pain | −0.73 | 0.86 | ||||
Headaches | −0.36 | 0.53 | ||||
Diarrhoea | 0.77 | 0.82 | ||||
Constipation | 0.51 | 0.71 | ||||
Stomach trouble | 0.72 | 0.59 |
3.3. Prevalence and Number of Health Complaints Reported in the Previous Year
Health Complaints (Often) | Prevalence (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Chinese | German | Chi Square Test p-Value | ||
Total HCs | Seldom HCs | 31.8 | 19.5 | <0.001 |
One to two HCs | 32.4 | 33.3 | ||
At least three HCs | 35.8 | 47.2 | ||
Psychological HCs | Seldom psychological HCs | 48.0 | 37.4 | <0.001 |
One to two psychological HCs | 34.7 | 43.6 | ||
At least three psychological HCs | 17.3 | 19.0 | ||
Concentration difficulties | 27.8 | 40.2 | <0.001 | |
Nervousness/anxiety | 27.3 | 38.3 | <0.001 | |
Mood swings | 33.1 | 30.1 | 0.028 | |
Depressive mood | 18.7 | 16.3 | 0.025 | |
Pain/aches | Seldom pain/aches | 58.0 | 40.9 | <0.001 |
One to two pain/aches | 36.8 | 46.5 | ||
Three pain/aches | 5.2 | 12.6 | ||
Neck/shoulder pain | 26.1 | 37.0 | <0.001 | |
Back/low back pain | 20.8 | 36.9 | <0.001 | |
Headaches | 19.0 | 31.9 | <0.001 | |
Gastrointestinal HCs | Seldom gastrointestinal HCs | 69.0 | 74.2 | <0.001 |
One to two gastrointestinal HCs | 29.4 | 25.1 | ||
Three gastrointestinal HCs | 1.6 | 0.7 | ||
Stomach trouble | 12.7 | 17.3 | <0.001 | |
Diarrhoea | 12.7 | 11.6 | 0.250 | |
Constipation | 15.5 | 4.6 | <0.001 |
Variables | Psychological OR (95% CI) | Pain/aches OR (95% CI) | Gastrointestinal OR (95% CI) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chinese † R2 = 0.33 (N = 1476) | German R2 = 0.33 (N = 2838) | Chinese R2 = 0.15 (N = 1467) | German R2 = 0.18 (N = 2880) | Chinese R2 = 0.09 (N =1474) | German R2 = 0.09 (N = 2881) | ||
Gender | Male (‡ Ref.) | 1.18 (0.93–1.50) | 1.68 *** (1.38–2.04) | 1.32 * (1.05–1.67) | 2.43 *** (2.04–2.89) | 0.97 (0.78–1.20) | 1.65 *** (1.36–1.99) |
Female | |||||||
Father’s education | High (Ref.) | 1.51 ** (1.17–1.93) | 0.91 (0.77–1.09) | 0.88 (0.69–1.12) | 1.00 (0.85–1.17) | 1.08 (0.86–1.34) | 0.79 ** (0.67–0.94) |
Low | |||||||
Having a partner | Yes (Ref.) | 0.94 (0.72–1.22) | 1.12 (0.94–1.34) | 0.92 (0.71–1.19) | 0.75 *** (0.64–0.88) | 0.94 (0.74–1.19) | 0.78 ** (0.65–0.92) |
No | |||||||
Income sufficiency | Sufficient (Ref.) | 0.96 (0.70–1.32) | 1.31 ** (1.09–1.57) | 1.35 * (1.01–1.82) | 1.18 * (1.01–1.40) | 1.30 (0.97–1.72) | 1.13 (0.95–1.35) |
Insufficient | |||||||
Subjective general health | Good (Ref.) | 1.96 ** (1.30–2.96) | 1.50 ** (1.14–1.98) | 2.66 *** (1.84–3.85) | 3.02 *** (2.29–3.99) | 1.76 ** (1.22–2.53) | 1.44 ** (1.13–1.84) |
Poor | |||||||
Health awareness | High (Ref.) | 1.18 (0.91–1.52) | 0.86 (0.72–1.04) | 0.97 (0.76–1.24) | 0.95 (0.80–1.12) | 1.11 (0.89–1.40) | 1.10 (0.91–1.32) |
Low | |||||||
Physical activity | Less than once a week | 1.12 (0.79–1.60) | 1.24 (0.98–1.58) | 1.37 (0.97–1.92) | 1.53 *** (1.23–1.91) | 1.16 (0.85–1.58) | 1.21 (0.96–1.53) |
Once to twice a week | 1.01 (0.74–1.38) | 1.12 (0.91–1.36) | 1.21 (0.89–1.63) | 1.13 (0.94–1.35) | 1.15 (0.87–1.50) | 1.21 (0.99–1.47) | |
At least three times a week (Ref.) | |||||||
Alcohol consumption | Never (Ref.) | ||||||
Less than once a week | 1.14 (0.89–1.48) | 1.02 (0.73–1.42) | 1.27 (0.99–1.62) | 0.85 (0.63–1.14) | 0.89 (0.71–1.12) | 0.85 (0.63–1.15) | |
At least once a week | 1.04 (0.65–1.68) | 1.19 (0.87–1.63) | 1.97 ** (1.26–3.09) | 0.94 (0.70–1.24) | 1.09 (0.71–1.68) | 0.79 (0.59–1.05) | |
Nutrition importance | Important (Ref.) | 1.35 (0.88–2.08) | 1.11 (0.80–1.53) | 1.50 * (1.01–2.22) | 1.00 (0.74–1.35) | 1.14 (0.77–1.67) | 1.01 (0.73–1.40) |
Unimportant | |||||||
Grade importance | Important (Ref.) | 0.62 (0.37–1.04) | 1.12 (0.69–1.80) | 0.73 (0.45–1.20) | 0.61 * (0.40–0.95) | 0.60 * (0.39–0.94) | 0.96 (0.61–1.50) |
Unimportant | |||||||
Life quality | Good (Ref.) | 1.34 * (1.03–1.75) | 1.66 *** (1.37–2.00) | 1.08 (0.83–1.40) | 1.29 ** (1.08–1.54) | 1.09 (0.86–1.39) | 1.29 ** (1.07–1.56) |
Poor | |||||||
Age per year increase | 0.97 (0.92–1.03) | 1.03 * (1.01–1.05) | 0.95 (0.90–1.01) | 1.00 (0.98–1.02) | 1.05 (0.99–1.10) | 1.03 * (1.01–1.05) | |
BMI per point increase | 0.96 (0.92–1.01) | 0.97 * (0.94–0.99) | 1.01 (0.96–1.05) | 1.00 (0.98–1.03) | 0.92 *** (0.88–0.96) | 1.02 (1.00–1.05) | |
PSS score per point increase | 1.15 *** (1.13–1.18) | 1.50 *** (1.43–1.57) | 1.07 *** (1.05–1.09) | 1.11 *** (1.07–1.16) | 1.04 *** (1.03–1.06) | 1.11 *** (1.07–1.16) |
3.4. Factors Associated with Health Complaints
Variables | Neck/Shoulder Pain | Back/Low Back Pain | Headaches | |
---|---|---|---|---|
† R2 = 0.11 (N = 1481) | R2 = 0.09 (N = 1475) | R2 = 0.15 (N = 1479) | ||
Gender | Male (‡ Ref.) | 1.19 (0.93–1.52) | 1.26 (0.97–1.64) | 1.30 (0.98–1.75) |
Female | ||||
Father’s education | High (Ref.) | 0.96 (0.75–1.24) | 0.73 * (0.56–0.97) | 1.09 (0.81–1.48) |
Low | ||||
Having a partner | Yes (Ref.) | 0.92 (0.70–1.20) | 0.91 (0.68–1.22) | 0.64 ** (0.47–0.87) |
No | ||||
Income sufficiency | Sufficient (Ref.) | 1.37 * (1.01–1.87) | 1.51 * (1.08–2.09) | 1.69 ** (1.19–2.39) |
Insufficient | ||||
Subjective general health | Good (Ref.) | 1.84 ** (1.28–2.65) | 2.29 *** (1.57–3.33) | 2.74 *** (1.86–4.06) |
Poor | ||||
Health awareness | High (Ref.) | 0.91 (0.70–1.18) | 0.99 (0.75–1.32) | 1.12 (0.83–1.53) |
Low | ||||
Physical activity | Less than once a week | 1.47 * (1.02–2.12) | 1.25 (0.85–1.83) | 1.07 (0.71–1.61) |
Once to twice a week | 1.43 * (1.03–1.98) | 0.98 (0.70–1.39) | 0.75 (0.52–1.10) | |
At least three times a week (Ref.) | ||||
Alcohol consumption | Never (Ref.) | |||
Less than once a week | 0.92 (0.71–1.19) | 1.21 (0.91–1.61) | 1.22 (0.89–1.68) | |
At least once a week | 1.51 (0.95–2.42) | 2.47 *** (1.54–3.96) | 3.38 *** (2.05–5.57) | |
Nutrition importance | Important (Ref.) | 1.39 (0.92–2.08) | 1.33 (0.87–2.03) | 1.97 ** (1.27–3.05) |
Unimportant | ||||
Grade importance | Important (Ref.) | 0.63 (0.36–1.10) | 1.05 (0.62–1.77) | 0.96 (0.53–1.72) |
Unimportant | ||||
Life quality | Good (Ref.) | 1.07 (0.81–1.42) | 1.16 (0.85–1.58) | 0.92 (0.66–1.29) |
Poor | ||||
Age per year increase | 0.94 (0.89–1.00) | 0.96 (0.90–1.03) | 0.92 * (0.85–0.99) | |
BMI per point increase | 0.99 (0.94–1.04) | 0.99 (0.94–1.04) | 0.99 (0.94–1.05) | |
PSS score per point increase | 1.06 *** (1.04–1.08) | 1.03 ** (1.01–1.05) | 1.06 *** (1.04–1.08) |
4. Discussion
4.1. Assessment of Underlying Dimensions of the 10 HCs through Factor Analysis
4.2. Prevalence of Health Complaints
4.3. Health Complaints and Associated Factors
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chu, J.J.; Khan, M.H.; Jahn, H.J.; Kraemer, A. Comparison of Subjective Health Complaints between Chinese and German University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 15794-15806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121215019
Chu JJ, Khan MH, Jahn HJ, Kraemer A. Comparison of Subjective Health Complaints between Chinese and German University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(12):15794-15806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121215019
Chicago/Turabian StyleChu, Janet Junqing, Mobarak Hossain Khan, Heiko J. Jahn, and Alexander Kraemer. 2015. "Comparison of Subjective Health Complaints between Chinese and German University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 12: 15794-15806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121215019