Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Retinal Degeneration: Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Perspectives

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are increasingly recognized as key contributors to the development and progression of retinal degenerative diseases, including age-related macular degeneration and inherited retinal dystrophies. Growing evidence suggests that alterations in mitochondrial function, excessive production of reactive oxygen species, defective mitophagy, and chronic inflammatory responses are closely interconnected processes that contribute to retinal cell damage and degeneration. This review provides an overview of the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms linking mitochondrial dysfunction to retinal degeneration, with particular emphasis on the impact of oxidative stress, mitochondrial quality-control pathways, and inflammatory signaling. Available evidence indicates that mitochondrial DNA damage, impaired bioenergetics, and dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics play a crucial role in the degeneration of photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium cells. In turn, oxidative stress further exacerbates mitochondrial impairment, creating a self-sustaining cycle that promotes disease progression. Recent advances have also highlighted the therapeutic potential of targeting mitochondrial pathways. Although several mitochondria-directed strategies have shown encouraging results in experimental models, their translation into clinical practice remains at an early stage. Overall, the available data identify mitochondria as a promising therapeutic target and support the development of precision medicine approaches aimed at preserving retinal function and slowing disease progression in patients with retinal degenerative disorders.