Application of MWD Sensor System in Auger for Real-Time Monitoring of Soil Resistance During Pile Drilling
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. MWD Development
- Sensors installed in the drilling rig do not interfere with the pile drilling process.
- Continuous measurement enables real-time control of the geotechnical profile and identification of specific drilling problems in weak soils.
- Automatic collection of large drilling data sets allows for their easy transfer and use in various emerging engineering fields, such as artificial intelligence, CAD, BIM, the IoT, Big Data, Digital Twins, and Interactive Visualizations.
2.2. Challenges in Pile–Soil Interaction Control Using MWD
3. Results
- A module for measuring lateral soil pressure on the auger, installed at the upper measurement level in a location where maximal soil compaction occurs during drilling, as shown in Figure 6a. The pressure sensor is at the same height as the upper friction sensor and is useful for measuring the horizontal soil pressure on the auger’s cylindrical surface in the compaction zone caused by displacement drilling. A measurement range of up to 1500 kPa allows for continuous monitoring of stress changes while drilling in most soil types. The measurement accuracy is 15 kPa.
- A module for measuring soil frictional resistance during pile drilling, installed at two levels on the auger, upper and lower, as shown in Figure 6b,c. The upper friction sensor is installed 160 cm above the lower one, in the zone of maximal lateral soil displacement during drilling. The tangential force values measured at this level are used to determine the friction resistance on the pile side in compacted soil zones. The measuring range is up to 500 kPa. The measurement has an accuracy of 5 kPa. Comparing the soil resistances recorded at both measurement levels allows for an assessment of the impact of displacement drilling in a specific cohesionless soil type. The lower friction sensor is installed on the side surface of the drill bit, approximately 20 cm above the blade, and has a measuring range of up to 500 kPa. The measurement has an accuracy of 5 kPa. The measured values reflect the characteristics of the native soil (without being affected by displacement drilling). Based on comparative EGPs field studies and standard CPTs, necessary correlations were established between the tangential force values of the friction sensors and the soil resistance on the pile side.
- A module for measuring soil resistance below the drill bit tip using a CPT probe that is pushed downward from inside the auger, as shown in Figure 6d. The CPT probe’s lower end is placed at an eccentric distance of 70 mm from the drill axis. It is equipped with a cone tip with a standardized diameter of 36.6 mm and an angle of 60 degrees. Using the periodically extended probe, the condition of the soil directly beneath the pile base can be examined. The standard extension speed is 2 cm/s (±2 mm/s). The maximum extension is 150 cm (±1 mm), and the measured resistance q.c does not exceed 50 MPa (max range up to 70 MPa). The measurement accuracy is 70 kPa.
- A displacement drill bit with a specially designed spiral blade system for drilling in various soil types.
- A replaceable thermal head with an upper part designed to enclose and protect the electronic measurement systems installed inside.
- Air or water injection nozzles located at the bottom of the drill bit, useful for grouting beneath the pile base or overcoming resistance during drilling.
- A concrete pressure control module located at the end of the drill to monitor pile shaft formation in the soil.
- Control systems integrated with various modules in standard drilling rigs (hydraulic, electrical, and power transmission systems).
- Control modules connected to a central unit in the operator cabin, used to supervise the measurement subsystems and record, process, and analyze the data displayed on the monitor screen.
- A proprietary software package that enables real-time recording and analysis of drilling data.
- The measurements are carried out directly at the current drilling depth of the drill bit in the ground.
- The drill’s integration with a set of innovative sensors on the auger side surface and a CPT probe periodically extending from inside it allows for direct identification of the soil characteristics during drilling, with independent measurement of the soil resistance for the side wall and base of the drilled pile.
- The placement of the sensors at two levels on the drill bit allows for better control of the effect of pile installation in the ground in real time.
- The drilling resistance measurements on both the side wall and below the drill bit can be used for real-time verification of the subsoil layer location at the pile installation site.
4. Discussion
4.1. Measurement of Pile Side Friction
4.2. Measurement of Pile Base Resistance
- Example 1—soil condition control at the final stage of pile drilling.
- Example 2—inspection of the ground conditions after the start of pile concreting.
5. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bello, O.; Holzmann, J.; Yaqoob, T.; Teodoriu, C. Application of Artificial Intelligence Methods in Drilling System Design and Operations: A review of the State of the Art. J. Artif. Intell. Soft Comput. Res. JAISCR 2015, 5, 121–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reboul, M.; Subaskaran, V. Development and Application in Geotechnical Engineering of an Universal Single Composed parameter obtained from drilling parmeters. In Proceedings of the XVII ECSMGE-2019, Geotechnical Engineering Foundation of the Future, Reykiavik, Iceland, 1–6 September 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shahri, A.; Shan, C.; Larsson, S.; Johansson, F. Normalizing Large Scale Sensor-Based MWD Data: An Automated Method toward A Unified Database. Sensors 2024, 24, 1209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, F.; Jiao, H.; Han, L.; Shen, L.; Du, W.; Ye, Q.; Yu, G. Real-Time Monitoring of Construction Quality for Gravel Piles Based on Internet of Things. Autom. Constr. 2020, 116, 103228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marinucci, A.; Gerressen, F.-W. Intelligent Geo-Construction Drilling Equipment: Delivering More than Meets the Eye. Geo-Strat. Mag. Arch. 2021, 25, 36–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Waughman, R.J.; Kenner, J.V.; Moore, A. Real-Time Specific Energy Monitoring Reveals Drilling Inefficiency and Enhances the Understanding of When to Pull Worn PDC Bits. In Proceedings of the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, TX, USA, 26–28 February 2002; Society of Petroleum Engineers: Calgary, AB, Canada, 2002; p. 74520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meng, Z.H.; Chen, A.M.; Zhang, M. Field Tests to Investigate the Installation Effects of Drilled Displacement Piles with Screw- Shaped Shaft in Clay. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE 2015, 141, 06015010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cayeux, E.; Daireaux, B.; Ambrus, A.; Mihai, R.; Carlsen, L. Autonomous Decision-Making While Drilling. Energies 2021, 14, 969. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sobotka, A.; Pająk, M. Using the Computer Quality Records of Piles in Foundation Works. AGH J. Maining Geoengin. 2011, 35, 527–534. (In Polish) [Google Scholar]
- Gonet, A.; Stryczek, S.; Fyda, M. A Review of Pile Machines and Their Selection Criteria. AGH Drilling Oil Gas 2015, 32, 469–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seward, D.W.; Quayle, S.; Mure, N.; Scott, J. On Site Pile Instrumentation and its Integration into the Management Process. In Proceedings of the 17th ISARC Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, 18–20 September 2000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malinet, F. What’s the Current State-of-the-Art in MWD and the Latest Digital Technological Advances in the Field? Geo-Strat. Mag. Arch. 2023, 27, 14–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larisch, M. Behaviour of Stiff Fine-Grained Soil During the Installation of Screw Auger Displacement Piles. Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Heidari, P.; Ghazavi, M. Statistical Evaluation of CPT and CPTu Based Methods for Prediction of Axial Bearing Capacity of Piles. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2021, 39, 1259–1287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krasiński, A. Estimation of Screw Displacement Pile-Bearing Capacity Based on Drilling Resistances. Stud. Geotech. Mech. 2023, 45, 282–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Duffy, K.; Gavin, K.; Korff, M.; Lange, D. Base Resistance of Screw Displacement Piles in Sand. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE 2024, 150, 04024070. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chai, F.; Liu, B.; Xue, J.; Duffy, K. Assessing direct CPT-Based Methods for Predicting Pile Base Resistance Using Coupled DEM-FDM Simulations. Comput. Geotech. 2025, 183, 107230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gui, M.W.; Soga, K.; Bolton, M.D.; Hamelin, J.P. Instrumented Borehole Drilling for Subsurface Investigation. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 2002, 128, 283–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baser, T.; Abhinav, A.; Rodgers, M.; Sychterz, A.; Kassel, S.; Hessing, B. Breaking Ground with Smart Drilling. Geo-Strata Mag. Arch. 2024, 27, 54–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reiffsteck, P. Standardization of MWD through ISO22476-15. Geo-Strata Mag. Arch. 2023, 27, 49–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cardu, M.; Oreste, P.; Pettinau, D.; Guidarelli, D. Automatic Measurement of Drilling Parameters to Evaluate the Mechanical Properties of Soils. Am. J. Appl. Sci. 2013, 10, 654–663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reiffsteck, P.; Benoit, J.; Bourdeau, C.; Desanneaux, G. Enhancing Geotechnical Investigations Using Drilling Parameters. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 2018, 144, 04018006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teale, R. The concept of specific energy in rock drilling. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 1965, 2, 57–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Basu, P.; Prezzi, M.; Basu, D. Drilled Displacement Piles—Current Practice and Design. J. Deep Found. Inst. DFI 2010, 4, 3–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larisch, M.D.; Nacke, E.; Arnold, M.; Scheuermann, A.; Williams, D.J. Simulation of Auger Displacement Pile Installation. Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 2014, 8, 458–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larisch, M.D.; Kelly, R.; Muttuvel, T. Improvement of Soft Soil Formations by Drilled Displacement Columns. In Ground Improvement Case Histories: Embankments with Special Reference to Consolidation and Other Physical Methods; Elsevier: Oxford, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siegel, T.C.; Cargill, P.E.; NeSmith, W.M. CPT Measurements Near Drilled Displacement Piles. In Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Field Measurements in Geomechanics FMGM, Boston, MA, USA, 24–27 September 2007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bottiau, M.; Huybrechts, N. Recent Advances in Pile Design, Construction, Monitoring and Testing. In Proceedings of the ECSMGE-2019 Geotechnical Engineering Foundation of the Future, Reykiavik, Iceland, 1–6 September 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tuenter, H.J.; Leunenberger, D.; Herrera, V.; Rozalen, V. Influence of Displacement Piles on Surrounding Soil and Nearby Piles: A case study. In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Stress Wave Theory and Design and Testing Methods for Deep Foundations SW2022, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 20–23 September 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hird, C.C.; Ni, Q.; Guymer, I. Physical Modelling of Deformations Around Piling Augers in Clay. Géotechnique 2011, 61, 993–999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pucker, T.; Grabe, J. Numerical Simulation of the Installation Process of Full Displacement Piles. Comput. Geotech. 2012, 45, 93–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jardine, R.J.; Zhu, B.T.; Foray, P.; Yang, Z.X. Measurement of Stresses Around Closed-Ended Displacement Piles in Sand. Geotechnique 2013, 63, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moshfeghi, S.; Eslami, A. Reliability-Based Assesment of Drilled Displacement Piles Bearing Capacity Using CPT Records. Mar. Geosources Geotechnol. 2018, 37, 67–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jarominiak, A.; Klosiński, B.; Grzegorzewicz, K. Pale i Fundamenty Palowe; Arkady: Warsaw, Poland, 1976; p. 430. (In Polish) [Google Scholar]
- Gwizdała, K. Fundamenty Palowe, T. 1-2; PWN: Warsaw, Poland, 2010; p. 298. (In Polish) [Google Scholar]
- Gavin, K.; Kovacevic, M.; Igoe, D. A Review of CPT Based Axial Pile Design in the Netherlands. Undergr. Space 2021, 6, 85–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siegel, W.M.; NeSmith, W.N.; Cargill, P.E. Ground Improvement Resulting From Installation of Drilled Displacement Piles. In Proceedings of the DFI’s 32nd Annual Conference Deep Foundations, Colorado Springs, CO, USA, 11–13 October 2007; pp. 129–138. [Google Scholar]
- Bourne-Webb, P.; Warwick, N.Q.; Hird, C.; Bell, A. Auger Displacement Pile Systems in Context for UK Application. In Proceedings of the 11th DFI-EFFC International Conference on Geotechnical Challenges in Urban Regeneration, London, UK, 26–28 May 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Eslami, A.; Valikhah, F.; Veiskarami, M. CPT-Based Investigation for Pile Toe and Shaft Resistances Distribution. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2017, 35, 2891–2905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eslami, A.; Lotfi, S.; Infante, J.A.; Moshfegh, S. Pile Shaft Capacity from Cone Penetration Test Records Considering Scale Effects. Int. J. Geomech. 2020, 20, 04020073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ciantia, M.; O’Sullivan, C.; Jardine, R.J. Installation Effects on Stress and Grading Around Displacement Piles in Sand. In Proceedings of the Piling Conference; Higgins, K.G., Ainsworth, Y., Toll, D.G., Osman, A.S., Eds.; ICE Publishing: London, UK, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fu, D.; Li, S.; Zhang, H.; Jiang, Y.; Liu, R.; Li, C. The Influence Depth of Pile Base Resistance in Sand-Layered Clay. Sustainability 2023, 15, 7221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mihálik, J.; Gago, F.; Vlček, J.; Drusa, M. Evaluation of Methods Based on CPTu Testing for Prediction of the Bearing Capacity of CFA Piles. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuwajima, K.; Hyodo, M.; Hyde, A.F. Pile Bearing Capacity Factors and Soil Crushabiity. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE 2009, 135, 901–913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, C.; Tang, D.; Wang, K.; Li, T.; Hu, B. Analytical Analysis of Spherical Cavity Expansion Considering Particle Breakage Effect of Sand and Its Application for CPT Tests. Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng. 2024, 28, 2291–2309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grabe, J.; Pucker, T. Zur Numerischen Modellierung von Vollverdrängungsbohrpfählen. Geotechnik 2012, 35, 109–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yasufuku, N.; Hyde, A.F.L. Pile End-Bearing Capacity in Crushable Sands. Getechnique 1995, 45, 663–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, B.; Zhang, Y.; Fu, X.; Zhang, B. Study on Visualization and Failure Mode of Model Test of Rock-Socketed Pile in Soft Rock. ASTM Int. Geotech. Test. J. 2019, 42, 624–1639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tateyama, K.; Ashida, S.; Fukagawa, R.; Takahashi, H. Geomechatronics—Interaction Between Ground and Construction Machinery and its Application to Construction Robotics. J. Terramech. 2006, 43, 341–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siry, A. Assessment of the Bearing Capacity of Displacement Piles Based on the Measurement of Selected Drilling Parameters. Ph.D. Thesis, The Rzeszow Uniwersity of Technology, Rzeszów, Poland, 2023. (In Polish). [Google Scholar]
- Siry, A. The EGP Displacement Auger—Polish Foundation Innovation. Geoinżynieria Drogi-Mosty-Tunele 2018, 1, 61–63. (In Polish) [Google Scholar]
- Trojnar, K.; Siry, A. Assessment of the Resistance of Displacement Piles Based on Measurement of Selected Drilling Parameters. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference Challenges in Geotechnical Engineering CGE-2019, Zielona Góra, Poland, 10–13 September 2019; Available online: https://www.issmge.org/events/3rd-ic-cge-2019#:~:text=http%3A//www.cgeconf.com (accessed on 17 June 2025).
- Trojnar, K.; Puch, F. The Use of Control and Measurement Data in Construction of the Piles with Modern Drilling Rigs. Autostrady 2019, 10, 70–76. (In Polish) [Google Scholar]
- Trojnar, K.; Siry, A.; Puch, F. Pile Foundations with CPT Measurement under the Pile Base. Mosty 2021, 3, 26–30. (In Polish) [Google Scholar]
- Bałachowski, L. Scale Effect in Shaft Friction From the Direct Shear Interface Tests. Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng. 2006, 6, 13–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doherty, P.; Gavin, K. The Shaft Capacity of Displacement Piles in Clay: A State of the Art Review. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2011, 29, 389–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leus, M.; Abrahamowicz, M. Experimental Investigations of Elimination the Stick-Slip Phenomenon in the Presence of Longitudinal Tangential Vibration. Acta Mech. Autom. 2019, 13, 45–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rybkiewicz, M.; Gutowski, P.; Leus, M. Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Stick-Slip Suppression with the Use of Longitudinal Tangential Vibration. J. Theor. Appl. Mech. 2020, 58, 637–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gwizdała, K. Analysis of Settelment of Piles Using Transform Functions; Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Gdańskiej; Budownictwo Wodne: Gdansk, Poland, 1996; p. 189. (In Polish) [Google Scholar]
- Gwizdała, K.; Stęczniewski, M. Determination of the Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations Based on CPT Test Results. Stud. Geotech. Mech. 2007, 29, 55–67. [Google Scholar]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Trojnar, K.; Siry, A. Application of MWD Sensor System in Auger for Real-Time Monitoring of Soil Resistance During Pile Drilling. Sensors 2025, 25, 5095. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25165095
Trojnar K, Siry A. Application of MWD Sensor System in Auger for Real-Time Monitoring of Soil Resistance During Pile Drilling. Sensors. 2025; 25(16):5095. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25165095
Chicago/Turabian StyleTrojnar, Krzysztof, and Aleksander Siry. 2025. "Application of MWD Sensor System in Auger for Real-Time Monitoring of Soil Resistance During Pile Drilling" Sensors 25, no. 16: 5095. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25165095
APA StyleTrojnar, K., & Siry, A. (2025). Application of MWD Sensor System in Auger for Real-Time Monitoring of Soil Resistance During Pile Drilling. Sensors, 25(16), 5095. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25165095