Development and Evaluation of a Slip Detection Algorithm for Walking on Level and Inclined Ice Surfaces
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Slip-Resistant Footwear
1.2. Existing Automated Slip Detection Methods
1.3. Objective
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Collection
2.2. Data Analyses
2.3. Signal Preprocessing
2.4. Stride Segmentation
- Vertical heel marker and toe marker velocities;
- Angle between foot and floor (foot angle);
- Angular velocity of the foot.
2.4.1. Toe Off
2.4.2. Heel Contact
2.5. Feature Extraction and Selection
2.6. Slip Classification
- Backward toe slips (classify by toe slip classifier);
- Forward toe slips (classify by toe slip classifier);
- Backward heel slips (classify by heel slip classifier);
- Forward heel slips (classify by heel slip classifier).
2.6.1. One-versus-Rest Multiclass Classification
2.6.2. Leave-One-Subject-Out Cross Validation
2.6.3. Handling Imbalanced Data
2.6.4. Performance Evaluation Metrics
2.6.5. Overall Slip Detection
2.6.6. Sensitivity Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Types of Slips
3.2. Stride Segmentation Performance
3.3. Slip Detection Performance
4. Discussion
4.1. Types of Slips
- ○
- Backward toe slips;
- ○
- Forward toe slips;
- ○
- Backward heel slips;
- ○
- Forward heel slips.
4.2. Stride Segmentation Performance
4.3. Slip Detection Performance
4.4. Limitations and Future Work
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Participant ID | Gender | Age | Height (cm) | Weight (kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | M | 36 | 177 | 85 |
2 | M | 32 | 175 | 49 |
3 | M | 20 | 170 | 73 |
4 | F | 21 | 179 | 73 |
5 | F | 34 | 168 | 68 |
6 | M | 29 | 175 | 73 |
7 | M | 22 | 183 | 80 |
8 | F | 23 | 179 | 84 |
9 | M | 24 | 175 | 75 |
Footwear Model | MAA Score | Range of Slopes Covered |
---|---|---|
Canadian Tire Woods Snow Peak Boots (1871132) | 0° | 0° to 4° |
Mark’s WindRiver Canmore (5CPEWRF16-5224) | 4° | 0°, 3° to 7° |
Mark’s WindRiver Mallory (5DQEWRFW5134) | 11° | 0°, 8° to 11° |
Feature Number | Feature Description |
---|---|
1 | Number of negative peaks separated by 100 ms in heel vertical velocity |
2 | Number of positive peaks separated by 100 ms in heel vertical velocity |
3 1 | Number of positive peaks separated by 7 ms in toe vertical velocity between toe off and heel contact |
4 1 | Difference of the number of positive peaks and negative peaks separated by 7 ms in toe vertical velocity between toe off and heel contact |
5 1,2 | Heel AP velocity at heel contact |
6 | Time it takes heel AP velocity to reach zero after heel contact |
7 2 | Area of the heel AP velocity from heel contact to the point where velocity reaches zero |
8 2 | Area of the negative peak in heel AP velocity immediately after heel contact |
9 2 | Area of the negative peak in heel AP velocity after heel contact that is different from the peak in Feature 8 |
10 1,2 | AP displacement of the heel between heel contact and mid-stance |
11 1,2 | Number of positive peaks in heel AP velocity after heel contact |
12 1,2 | Velocity of the largest positive peak in heel AP velocity after heel contact |
13 1,2 | Area of positive peaks in heel AP velocity after heel contact |
14 1,2 | Area of positive peaks in heel AP and medial-lateral velocity after heel contact |
15 1,2 | Sum of Feature 7 and Feature 10 |
16 1,2 | Difference between Feature 13 and Feature 8 |
17 1,2 | Binary feature that describes whether the foot comes to a full stop after heel contact. The criteria for full stop are that its absolute acceleration needs to be smaller than 0.5 m/s2 and its absolute velocity needs to be smaller than 0.01 m/s. |
18 1 | Number of positive peaks in heel vertical velocity before toe off |
19 1 | Number of positive peaks in toe vertical velocity before toe off |
20 1 | Number of positive peaks in heel AP velocity before toe off |
21 1 | Number of positive peaks in toe AP velocity before toe off |
22 1 | Maximum velocity of the largest positive peak in heel AP velocity before toe off |
23 1 | Maximum velocity of the largest positive peak in toe AP velocity before toe off |
24 1,2 | Heel AP velocity at |
25 2 | Toe AP velocity at |
26 1 | Number of negative peaks in toe AP velocity before toe off |
27 1 | Width of the largest negative peak in toe AP velocity before toe off |
28 1 | Maximum velocity of the largest negative peak in toe AP velocity before toe off |
29 1 | Area of all negative peaks in toe AP velocity before toe off |
30 2 | Number of positive peaks in heel AP velocity after |
31 | Sum of the curvature values between and |
32 | Mean of the curvature values between and |
33 1,2 | Sum of the curvature values between and of the next step |
34 1,2 | Mean of the curvature values between and of the next step |
35 1 | Area between the heel AP velocity curve and a straight line drawn from the point before where the heel AP velocity is zero to |
36 2 | Area between the heel AP velocity curve and a straight line drawn from to the point after where the heel AP velocity is zero |
Participant ID | Backward Toe Slip | Forward Toe Slip | Backward Heel Slip | Forward Heel Slip |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 210 | 3 | 55 | 224 |
2 | 173 | 46 | 139 | 160 |
3 | 289 | 36 | 255 | 370 |
4 | 114 | 7 | 100 | 110 |
5 | 293 | 30 | 184 | 210 |
6 | 305 | 6 | 168 | 279 |
7 | 245 | 33 | 114 | 258 |
8 | 317 | 60 | 191 | 249 |
9 | 173 | 11 | 226 | 194 |
Total | 2119 | 232 | 1432 | 2054 |
Non-Toe Slip | Backward Toe Slip | Forward Toe Slip | Average | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Precision | 99.2% | 95.9% | 45.2% | 80.1% |
Recall | 96.7% | 99.0% | 82.2% | 92.6% |
F1 score | 98.0% | 97.3% | 54.7% | 85.7% |
Non-Heel Slip | Backward Heel Slip | Forward Heel Slip | Average | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Precision | 93.7% | 77.4% | 90.6% | 87.2% |
Recall | 93.6% | 86.4% | 83.8% | 87.9% |
F1 score | 93.6% | 80.9% | 86.5% | 87.5% |
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Cen, J.-Y.; Dutta, T. Development and Evaluation of a Slip Detection Algorithm for Walking on Level and Inclined Ice Surfaces. Sensors 2022, 22, 2370. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062370
Cen J-Y, Dutta T. Development and Evaluation of a Slip Detection Algorithm for Walking on Level and Inclined Ice Surfaces. Sensors. 2022; 22(6):2370. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062370
Chicago/Turabian StyleCen, Jun-Yu, and Tilak Dutta. 2022. "Development and Evaluation of a Slip Detection Algorithm for Walking on Level and Inclined Ice Surfaces" Sensors 22, no. 6: 2370. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062370
APA StyleCen, J.-Y., & Dutta, T. (2022). Development and Evaluation of a Slip Detection Algorithm for Walking on Level and Inclined Ice Surfaces. Sensors, 22(6), 2370. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062370