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Article

Ecological Drivers and Community Perceptions: Conservation Challenges for the Critically Endangered Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) in Jalthal Forest, Eastern Nepal

by
Kamala Limbu
1,†,
Asmit Subba
1,2,†,
Nishan Limbu
1,
Laxman Khanal
1,* and
Randall C. Kyes
3
1
Central Department of Zoology, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu 44618, Nepal
2
Conservation Himalaya, Chandragiri 14, Kathmandu 44619, Nepal
3
Departments of Psychology, Global Health, and Anthropology, Center for Global Field Study, and Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Diversity 2025, 17(7), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17070458
Submission received: 13 June 2025 / Revised: 27 June 2025 / Accepted: 27 June 2025 / Published: 28 June 2025
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Abstract

The elongated tortoise (Indotestudo elongata), a Critically Endangered (CR) species, faces numerous threats across its range. Yet, the ecological and anthropogenic factors affecting its conservation in fragmented habitats remain poorly understood. This study integrated field surveys and community questionnaires to assess the distribution drivers and local perceptions, such as attitudes, knowledge, conservation practices, and perceived threats, in the Jalthal Forest, one of the last remnants of suitable habitat for the elongated tortoise in eastern Nepal. Using ArcMap, we established 138 randomly selected grids (500 m × 500 m) to evaluate the environmental covariates of tortoise occurrence and anthropogenic pressures. Generalized linear models revealed that tortoise occurrence was negatively associated with dense ground cover (β = −3.50, p = 0.017) and human disturbance (β = −8.11, p = 0.019). Surveys of local residents from community forest user groups (n = 236 respondents) indicated strong local support for tortoise conservation (69% willing to protect the species). Despite this, the respondents identified persistent threats, including hunting for bushmeat and traditional medicine (74%), habitat degradation (65%), and forest fires. While 60% of the respondents recognized the threatened species status, significant knowledge gaps regarding that status and ongoing illegal exploitation persisted. These findings underscore the need for targeted habitat management, reduced anthropogenic pressures, and community-led initiatives to align local attitudes with conservation actions. This study provides critical baseline data for conserving the elongated tortoise in human-modified landscapes and emphasizes the necessity of integrated ecological and socio-cultural strategies for its long-term survival.

1. Introduction

The elongated tortoise, also known as the yellow-headed tortoise (Indotestudo elongata), is widely distributed throughout South and Southeast Asia. Its range stretches across northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Malaysia [1,2]. Across this vast range, it occupies a remarkable variety of habitats, from low- and mid-elevation evergreen and deciduous forests to hills, high plateaus, mountains, grasslands, and secondary forests [1,3,4]. In colder and humid seasons, the species is often found beneath leaf litter, within fallen tree trunks or old porcupine burrows, and among dense grasses, locations that provide dark, fertile soil supporting a diversity of insects and fungi, which are the probable food source for the elongated tortoise [5,6,7]. However, across its range, the species generally favors dry, open-canopied areas with abundant leaf litter, which allow for basking on cooler days and are closely linked to female reproductive success [1,6,8,9]. Its activity is largely seasonal and tied to the monsoon. Breeding typically occurs from May through August [10], and daily movements are usually restricted to early morning and late evening to avoid extreme temperatures [1,11].
Home-range estimates for the elongated tortoise vary considerably across studies. Tharapoom [12] reported an average of 18.74 ha, whereas Van Dijk [6] recorded approximately 5 ha [6], and Ihlow et al. [8] found ranges closer to 1.29 ha. This variability likely reflects differences in the habitat quality, resource availability, and local climate. However, despite these differences in the home-range size, all authors noted a consistent association with open-canopied sites and ample leaf litter, suggesting that suitable basking opportunities and cover from predators play a central role in the spatial use patterns of elongated tortoise [1].
The elongated tortoise is classified as Critically Endangered (CR) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and is listed in Appendix II of CITES [2]. National protection laws in Nepal, India, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Bangladesh also include this species [2,13]. Major threats across its range include habitat loss and fragmentation (often driven by agricultural expansion and logging), human-induced forest fires, hunting for bushmeat, illegal trade (for both food and the pet market), and use in traditional medicine [2,14]. In some regions, the tortoise is kept as a temple pet due to local religious beliefs. Together, these pressures have driven a drastic population decline over the past three generations (approximately 90 years) [2,3,14].
In Nepal, the elongated tortoise occurs primarily in Sal (Shorea robusta)-dominated lowland Terai forests and the adjoining mid-hill areas below 1000 m asl [3,4]. Its known distribution extends from Jhapa District in the east to Shuklaphanta National Park in the west [15,16]. One particularly important remnant habitat is the Jalthal Forest in eastern lowland Nepal, a patch of once-continuous Sal and mixed deciduous vegetation known locally as “Charkoshe Jhadi” [14]. This tropical forest supports high biodiversity, including several threatened species, and now stands isolated amid intense human land use [17]. As such, it represents a critical refuge for the critically endangered elongated tortoise. Although the elongated tortoise is highly threatened in Nepal, limited research has focused on this species [14,17]. Subba and Khanal [14] recently estimated a population density of just 0.35 individuals per km2 in the Jalthal Forest and documented severe pressures from hunting and habitat degradation. Given these alarming findings and the paucity of ecological data, the present study seeks to achieve the following: (1) identify the key ecological covariates influencing elongated tortoise distribution in the Jalthal Forest, (2) assess the principal threats to its sustainability, and (3) evaluate local community forest user groups’ perceptions of the species. Through gridded field surveys conducted across the forest during the post-monsoon season and comprehensive questionnaire surveys of local residents, we identified the environmental factors influencing the occurrence of elongated tortoises and the major conservation challenges they face in the Jalthal Forest. These insights will help inform more targeted conservation and management strategies for elongated tortoises in this isolated but biologically significant forest patch.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

This study was conducted in the Jalthal Forest of Jhapa District, located between 87°55′ E and 88°03′ E longitudes and 26°27′ N and 26°32′ N latitudes in eastern Nepal (Figure 1). The forest covers an area of 60 km2, which includes 22 community forests (forest areas managed by local user groups under Nepal’s Community Forestry Program), and is dominated by both Sal (Shorea robusta) forest and mixed deciduous forest [18,19]. The climate is tropical monsoon categorized into three seasons: hot summer monsoon (March to mid-May), warm–humid post-monsoon (mid-May to October), and cold winter (mid-November to February) [20]. The area has an annual mean temperature of 25 °C with an annual mean precipitation of 2300 mm [17]. The Jalthal Forest is rich in biodiversity with a documented 57 tree species, 16 shrubs, 67 herbs, and 10 species of climbers. It also provides habitat for a broad diversity of animal species, including 43 species of fish, 14 species of amphibians, 32 species of reptiles, 230 species of birds, and 27 species of mammals [17]. Some of the threatened species that inhabit the Jalthal Forest include the Burmese python (Python molurus bivitatus), the elongated tortoise (Indotestudo elongata), the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), and the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) [14,17,21]. The forest and wildlife are threatened by habitat fragmentation, invasive alien plant species (IAPs), hunting, biomass extraction, road construction within the forest, and human-induced forest fire [17].

2.2. Field Survey

The field survey was carried out during the post-monsoon period (August–November 2023), when the tortoises were observed to be active. To facilitate the sampling, 75% of the total study area was randomly divided into 500 m × 500 m grids using the subset tool ArcGIS 10.7. The grid size was based on the tortoises’ median year-round home range sizes [6,8,12]. A total of 175 grids were generated. Of these, 23 grids were excluded for having less than 50% coverage of their total area within the survey grids, and 14 grids were excluded for having an agriculture area inside the forest patches. The remaining 138 grids were fully surveyed. In each surveyed grid, a continuous 500 m × 20 m line-transect belt passing through the centroid of the grid was marked for sampling. The surveys (via line-transect sampling) were conducted on a daily basis between 10:00 and 16:00 with the help of a forest security guard (field guide) due to the risks associated with high human–elephant conflict. To facilitate the sampling and subsequent analysis of tortoise presence and environmental variables, each 500 m transect was divided into 100 m segments, yielding six sampling points per transect. At each point, both direct and indirect evidence of tortoise presence was recorded, including trails with or without footprints, triangular bite marks on vegetation, and shells of dead tortoises [14,22]. For the indirect sightings, the footprints were carefully analyzed, and the previously reported sightings were verified using photographs taken by forest guards during their fieldwork within the grid areas to pinpoint the location and to analyze the number of individuals. For the assessment of environmental variables, the GPS coordinates, Human Disturbance Index, canopy cover, ground cover, habitat type, watershed area, and soil type were recorded. For each grid, the six sampling point measurements were averaged to represent the grid-level conditions. Each of the 138 transects/grids was sampled one time.

2.3. Covariates Selection

We conducted a literature review on the elongated tortoise to identify the environmental variables influencing its distribution and ecology. The species occupies diverse habitats, including wetlands, primary and secondary woods, meadows, hills, high plateaus, and evergreen and deciduous forests [1,4]. It also tends to avoid areas with intense anthropogenic activities, such as dense human populations, forest fires, roads, and firewood/fodder collection [1,10,23]. Based on this review and our reconnaissance surveys, we selected covariates representing the key habitat features, anthropogenic pressures, and environmental conditions known or suspected to affect the species.
The survey grids were categorized into four dominant habitat types prevalent in the study area: heavily invaded invasive species areas, wetland areas, mixed forests, and Sal forests [14,17]. These classifications were further confirmed during the field surveys and through consultations with local forestry officials. We georeferenced most of the water resources during the field surveys, digitizing any missed features using Google Earth Pro. Using Euclidean distance tools in ArcGIS 10.7, we calculated the distance from the centroid of each grid to the nearest water resource, human settlement, and road. Given the extensive invasion of IAPs, particularly Mikania micrantha and Chromolaena odorata, within the Jalthal Forest [24] and their potential negative impact on tortoise foraging and basking behavior [14], we included the presence or absence of the dominant IAPs as a covariate. Here, dominant IAPs refers to species covering more than 50% of the ground vegetation within a survey grid and visibly outcompeting the native flora. This classification was based on field observations during the surveys and is consistent with prior vegetation studies in the region [17,24]. We measured the canopy cover using the Canopea mobile application [25] and the ground cover using the GLAMA mobile application [26] in the field.
We quantified human disturbance using a Human Disturbance Index (HDI). From the preliminary surveys, we identified four major disturbance types: forest fire (FF), deforestation (D), roads (R), and firewood/fodder collection (FC). Forest fire presence was confirmed based on observable burnt trees, roots, and organic soils within the past five years [27] and verified by the forest security guards. For each 100 m transect point, we recorded the presence (score = 0.25) or absence (score = 0) of each disturbance type and calculated the HDI as the sum of these scores [28,29] using the following formula: HDI = (FF × 0.25) + (D × 0.25) + (R × 0.25) + (FC × 0.25). The HDI value for each grid was based on the average of its point values.
We also included the soil texture as a covariate due to its influence on soil moisture retention, food resource availability, and the tortoise’s burrowing and feeding ecology. The soil texture was determined in situ using the standardized “feel method” [30,31,32], assessing characteristics such as grittiness, cohesiveness, and stickiness.

2.4. Questionnaire Survey

Between August and December 2023, we also conducted a questionnaire-based survey among the members of the community forest user groups (CFUGs) within the Jalthal Forest to assess the local perceptions about the elongated tortoise. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to an effective sample size of respondents. To account for clustering within the 22 CFUGs, the initial calculated sample size of 484 was adjusted to approximately 236 respondents, assuming an intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.05 [33]. Participation was limited to individuals 18 years or older, and informed verbal consent was obtained from all respondents after explaining the study objectives. The interviews were conducted in Nepali or local dialects by trained enumerators, typically lasted 20–25 min, and incorporated open-ended questions following established methodological recommendations [34].

2.5. Data Analysis

Prior to the analysis, the continuous predictor variables were standardized using z-scores ( z = ( x − μ ) σ ) . Multicollinearity among all variables, including the canopy cover, ground cover, settlement distance, HDI, water distance, habitat type, and soil type, was then assessed using a combination of Spearman’s rank correlation (retaining variables where |r| < 0.7), chi-square tests (p > 0.05 for categorical associations), and variance inflation factors (VIF < 2). These diagnostics confirmed all variables were suitable for inclusion (Supplementary File S1, Figure S1 and Table S1).
We modeled elongated tortoise presence–absence using generalized linear models (GLMs) with a binomial distribution and logit link function. The automated model selection was performed in R version 4.3.3 [35] using the MuMIn package [36], generating all possible variable combinations. The competing models were defined as those with ΔAIC ≤ 4.0 [37]. As no single model attained substantial support (all ωi < 0.33), inference was based on conditional model averaging across the top model set (Supplementary File S1, Table S2). The final predictive plots were generated using the ggplot2 package [38] and visualized with unstandardized data for ecological interpretability [39].
For the questionnaire data, descriptive statistics summarized the socio-demographic characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, occupation, education) and responses regarding knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and perceived threats toward the elongated tortoise. The attitudes were quantified using a three-point Likert scale (agree/neutral/disagree) [40]. The associations between the socio-demographic factors and the key response variables (knowledge level, attitudes, conservation awareness, recognition of conservation status [binary]) were evaluated using chi-square (χ2) tests. All analyses were conducted in R 4.3.3, and the codes used are available from Supplementary File S1, Table S3.

3. Results

3.1. Factors Affecting the Distribution of Elongated Tortoise

Elongated tortoises and their signs were recorded in 7.9% (n = 11) of the surveyed grids in the Jalthal Forest, comprising nine direct sightings and two recent records based on photographs taken by forest guards. The GLM revealed the significant negative effects of ground cover and HDI on tortoise occurrence (Figure 2A,B). Ground cover showed a statistically significant negative relationship (β = −3.50 ± 1.45 SE; z = −2.38, p = 0.017), with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of −6.37 to −0.16. Similarly, HDI demonstrated a significant negative association (β = −8.11 ± 3.40 SE; z = −2.35, p = 0.019), with a 95% CI of −14.78 to −1.44 (Table 1).
Other variables showed no significant associations with tortoise occurrence: canopy cover (β = 0.73 ± 0.69 SE; z = 1.06, p = 0.292), distance to nearest settlement (β = −0.90 ± 0.84 SE; z = −1.06, p = 0.290), invasive species presence (β = 0.89 ± 1.67 SE; z = 0.53, p = 0.600), and habitat types, including Sal forest (β = 1.33 ± 1.37 SE; z = 0.97, p = 0.341) and wetlands (β = 0.87 ± 3.50 SE; z = 0.25, p = 0.806) (Table 1). Soil types (loamy, sandy, silty) also exhibited non-significant effects with extreme standard errors and biologically implausible confidence intervals, indicating substantial model uncertainty. For example, loamy soil showed β = 21.85 ± 4179.6 SE (z = 0.01, p = 0.996) with a 95% CI of −8.310 to 8353.9, likely reflecting limited tortoise detections across soil categories (Table 1).

3.2. Demographic Composition of the Local Residents Surveyed

Of the 236 respondents, 68% were male (n = 160) and 32% female (n = 76), with ages ranging from 18 to 80 years. The majority (48%, n = 113) were middle-aged (40–59 years), and 38% (n = 90) had no formal education. Most respondents were engaged in agriculture (78%, n = 184), followed by employment (15%, n = 35), students (5%, n = 12), and business (2%, n = 5). Ethnically, 33% were Janajati (n = 79), 25% Chettri (n = 59), 24% Brahmin (n = 57), and 8% Madhesi (n = 19) (Table 2).

3.3. Respondents’ Attitudes vs. Conservation Challenges to Elongated Tortoises in the Jalthal Forest

The majority of the respondents surveyed (69%, n = 163, Figure 3) had a positive attitude toward the conservation of the elongated tortoise, and 68% (n = 160) expressed a desire to protect the species. Additionally, 90% (n = 212) believed that tortoises are a good omen (Figure 3). Education level significantly influenced people’s attitudes toward conservation (χ2 = 18.925, df = 8, p < 0.001). The majority of the respondents with an education above the secondary level (76.1%, n = 102) agreed on the need to conserve tortoises, compared to 63.3% (n = 57) of those considered to be illiterate. This suggests a positive correlation between educational level and conservation-friendly attitudes in the Jalthal Forest. More than half of the respondents (52%, n = 123) recognized the ecological importance of tortoises. When it came to perceptions about tortoises, 55% (n = 130) did not consider them suitable as pets, and 53% (n = 125) were aware that trading turtles is illegal (Figure 3). The vast majority (88%, n = 208) acknowledged that the elongated tortoise population is declining, with 74% (n = 175) attributing this decline to hunting for meat and medicinal purposes (Figure 3). Many respondents (65%) also pointed to habitat destruction as a major threat to tortoises in the Jalthal Forest (Figure 3).
When asked about localized threats to turtles in an open-ended question, 35% (n = 83) of the respondents reported instances of people hunting elongated tortoises in their locality, primarily for bushmeat. Some ethnic communities, such as the Santhal and Meche communities, use tortoises for medicinal purposes, particularly for treating childhood pneumonia and bone fractures. Meanwhile, 25% (n = 59) were unaware of any local threats. Other reported threats included habitat degradation (13%, n = 31), forest fires (11%, n = 26), illegal trade (5%, n = 12), egg predation (6%, n = 14), and low reproductive rates (5%, n = 12) (Figure 4). Encouragingly, 142 respondents expressed their willingness to report tortoise sightings to the relevant authorities.

3.4. Knowledge of Status and Conservation Approaches for the Elongated Tortoise

The majority of the respondents (60%, n = 142) were aware that the elongated tortoise is a globally threatened species, although about 25% were unaware of this status (Figure 4). We found that occupation was the only factor significantly influencing awareness of the species’ conservation status (χ2 = 7.77, df = 3, p < 0.001), while age (χ2 = 3.23, df = 1, p > 0.05), gender (χ2 = 1.69, df = 2, p > 0.05), ethnicity (χ2 = 6.28, df = 1, p > 0.05), and education (χ2 = 9.25, df = 4, p > 0.05) had no significant effect. Similarly, approximately one-sixth of the respondents (n = 36) disagreed that awareness campaigns had been conducted in their locality regarding species conservation. The awareness levels were significantly influenced by gender (χ2 = 5.93, df = 2, p < 0.001). Among those surveyed, 49 males and 14 females agreed that awareness campaigns had taken place, while 31 males and 5 females disagreed. Additionally, 80 males and 57 females had no knowledge of any conservation events related to the elongated tortoise in the Jalthal area. The majority (68%, n = 160) believed that the elongated tortoise should be conserved. However, all respondents (100%) had specific ideas on how to conserve the species. Opinions on conservation methods varied: 32% emphasized the need for awareness programs, 27% supported stopping illegal hunting and enforcing strict laws, 26% favored habitat management, 6% advocated for ex situ conservation, 5% advocated for in situ conservation, and 4% believed that involving local communities in conservation efforts was essential.

4. Discussion

4.1. Factors Affecting the Occurrence of the Elongated Tortoise

Understanding the environmental variables associated with a species occurrence enables more effective conservation efforts targeting habitats and their dependent species [41]. This study identified critical factors affecting the occurrence of the elongated tortoise in Nepal’s isolated Jalthal Forest. Our analysis reveals a significant negative association between tortoise occurrence and ground cover density, indicating reduced habitat suitability in densely vegetated areas. The occurrence grids exhibited a significantly (p < 0.05) lower average ground cover (57.65% ± 15.85%) compared to the non-occurrence grids (59.78% ± 14.4%). This preference for open understories aligns with the findings from Sal and bamboo–mixed deciduous forests, where minimal ground cover facilitates movement, foraging, and thermoregulation via basking [2,42,43,44]. Dense vegetation may obstruct these behaviors, create unsuitable microclimates, limit food resources, and impede nesting or sheltering, particularly during summer when individuals remain largely hidden [2]; Personal obs.). Invasive ground vegetation further exacerbates these issues by altering the natural habitat structure [14].
Human disturbance also significantly reduced the occurrence likelihood of elongated tortoises. The occurrence grids had a noticeably higher HDI value than the non-occurrence grids. Activities including forest fires, deforestation, road development, and fodder/firewood collection collectively degrade habitat suitability [14]. Elongated tortoises are particularly vulnerable to fire, which can limit recruitment and survival [1,43]. Previous reports describe individuals with extensive carapace burn scars [6,45], and annual wildfires in Northeast India have been shown to limit their distribution [43]. In the Jalthal Forest, some of the local residents noted seeing fire-scarred tortoises near water sources after having rolled downhill to escape fires in Sal forests. In addition, fodder and firewood collectors degrade habitats and opportunistically capture tortoises. Locals also harvest tortoises during forest product collection, with the local Santhal and Meche communities sometimes using dogs to hunt them [1,14].
Road construction through forest areas poses further threats by impeding movement, causing road mortality through vehicle collision [10], and facilitating illegal collection and trade [13,46]. One of the survey respondents reported that a road construction worker attempted to smuggle a tortoise for trade to India, which was fortunately prevented by local authorities. This highlights how roads not only fragment habitats but also increase exposure to poaching and trafficking [10,47].
While our study provides critical insights into the environmental and anthropogenic factors affecting the occurrence of the elongated tortoise in the Jalthal Forest, it is important to acknowledge a key limitation. The fieldwork was conducted during a single season and, as such, may not fully account for variation in habitat use, disturbance levels, or detectability throughout the year. Therefore, caution is warranted when generalizing these results beyond the study period. Long-term, multi-season monitoring would strengthen these findings and support more robust conservation strategies.

4.2. Threats and Local Residents’ Perception Toward the Elongated Tortoise

Members of the community forest user groups (CFUGs) in the Jalthal Forest expressed predominantly positive attitudes toward elongated tortoise conservation, providing a promising foundation for community-based initiatives. Most respondents (69%) supported conservation efforts, 90% associated tortoises with positive omens (indicating strong cultural ties), and 52% recognized their ecological importance. However, significant knowledge gaps persist. We found that although 60% were aware of the tortoise’s threatened status, 40% remained uninformed. Conservation awareness varied significantly by occupation, while attitudes were influenced by education level, suggesting outreach should be tailored to occupational groups rather than relying solely on general education.
Despite supportive attitudes, the respondents identified hunting (for meat and traditional medicine) as the primary threat (74%), corroborating field observations and published studies [1,45]. This contrast between stated support and persistent exploitation highlights a key conservation paradox. Additional threats include habitat degradation, fires, and illegal trade, consistent with patterns across the species’ range [10,43]. Open-ended responses further revealed localized pressures including opportunistic capture, targeted hunting with dogs, fire-related mortality in Sal forests during the dry season [1,6], and roadkill. Roads also facilitate trafficking [48], as exemplified by the smuggling attempt reported by the CFUG member during our survey.
Although conservation awareness campaigns have been limited, the female members of the CFUGs showed enthusiasm for participating in future efforts. A significant number (n = 142) expressed a willingness to report tortoise sightings, indicating the potential for establishing citizen-based monitoring or early warning systems. The conservation suggestions provided by the respondents were diverse, with support for awareness programs (32%), law enforcement (27%), and habitat management (26%), among others. This reflects a strong foundation for participatory conservation strategies, particularly if the local communities are meaningfully involved.
Collectively, these findings indicate that community support for tortoise conservation exists but must be strengthened through targeted education, inclusive outreach, and the enforcement of protective measures. Bridging the gap between positive attitudes and proactive conservation behavior is essential for ensuring the long-term survival of the elongated tortoise in human-dominated landscapes like the Jalthal Forest.

5. Conclusions

This study offers essential insights into the ecology and conservation challenges faced by the elongated tortoise in Nepal’s human-dominated Jalthal Forest. Our analysis indicates that tortoise occurrence is significantly influenced by habitat characteristics and anthropogenic pressures. Tortoises demonstrate a clear preference for areas with lower ground-cover density, which facilitates essential behaviors, while their presence is negatively associated with human disturbances such as fires, deforestation, collection activities, and road development. These disturbances lead to direct mortality, habitat degradation, impeded movement, and increased vulnerability to hunting and trafficking.
Additionally, an assessment of community perceptions reveals a complex situation. Although the members of local community forest user groups predominantly express positive attitudes toward conservation, significant knowledge gaps remain, with over 40% unaware of the tortoise’s threatened status. Notably, there is a stark paradox between the expressed support for conservation and the identification of hunting as the primary threat, along with habitat degradation, fire, and trade. To effectively address the combined threats of habitat degradation and direct exploitation, it is crucial to engage local communities as partners, which presents the most promising pathway for securing the future of this species in its critical habitat.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/d17070458/s1, File S1: Figure S1: Correlation plot showing correlation coefficient among the continuous variables; Table S1: VIF values of the variables; Table S2: Summary of top models examining the factor affecting the distribution of elongated tortoise; Table S3: R code used for the data analyses.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.K. and A.S.; methodology, K.L., A.S. and N.L.; software, K.L. and A.S.; validation, A.S. and L.K.; formal analysis, K.L. and A.S.; investigation, K.L.; resources, L.K.; data curation, A.S.; writing—original draft preparation, K.L. and A.S.; writing—review and editing, N.L., L.K. and R.C.K.; visualization, A.S.; supervision, L.K.; project administration, K.L.; funding acquisition, K.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the British Herpetological Society, Student Thesis Grant, and a Rufford Small Grant from the Rufford Foundation, UK (grant number 37792-1).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all respondents involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the Central Department of Zoology (CDZ), Tribhuvan University, for providing the platform to conduct this research, and the Department of Forests and Soil Conservation (DoFSC), Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, and the Division Forest Office (DFO), Jhapa, for granting permission to conduct this study in the Jalthal Forest. We thank the British Herpetological Society (BHS) and the Rufford Foundation for funding this work. We also thank all the members of the community forest user groups of the Jalthal Forest. Special thanks to Bharat Dhakal and Keshav Luitel, who assisted with our fieldwork. RCK’s effort was supported in part by the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (ORIP) of the National Institutes of Health through grant number P51OD010425 to the Washington National Primate Research Center, USA.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
HDIHuman Disturbance Index
CFUGcommunity forest user group
CIconfidence interval
GLMgeneralized linear model
ICCintra-class correlation coefficient
VIFvariance inflation factor
IAPSinvasive alien plant species

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Diversity 17 00458 g001
Figure 1. Map of the study area including the survey grids and the detection locations of the elongated tortoise in the Jalthal Forest. The survey grids highlighted in red represent the locations where the species was detected. The inset photograph is of an elongated tortoise and was taken in the Jalthal Forest during the field survey (photograph by Kamala Limbu).
Figure 1. Map of the study area including the survey grids and the detection locations of the elongated tortoise in the Jalthal Forest. The survey grids highlighted in red represent the locations where the species was detected. The inset photograph is of an elongated tortoise and was taken in the Jalthal Forest during the field survey (photograph by Kamala Limbu).
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Figure 2. Prediction probability of elongated tortoise against: (A) Human Disturbance Index (HDI), (B) ground cover in the Jalthal Forest.
Figure 2. Prediction probability of elongated tortoise against: (A) Human Disturbance Index (HDI), (B) ground cover in the Jalthal Forest.
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Figure 3. Likert chart showing the local residents’ perceptions of the elongated tortoise.
Figure 3. Likert chart showing the local residents’ perceptions of the elongated tortoise.
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Figure 4. Perceptions regarding conservation threats to the elongated tortoise in the Jalthal Forest by members of the community forest user groups. The Y-axis represents the identified threats, while the X-axis shows the percentage of respondents.
Figure 4. Perceptions regarding conservation threats to the elongated tortoise in the Jalthal Forest by members of the community forest user groups. The Y-axis represents the identified threats, while the X-axis shows the percentage of respondents.
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Table 1. Results of the generalized linear model (GLM) assessing the effects of environmental/anthropogenic variables on elongated tortoise presence/absence. The model includes the variable parameter estimates (β), standard errors (SE), lower and upper confidence intervals (LCI and UCI), z-values, and associated p-values. Statistically significant predictors (p < 0.05) are indicated with an asterisk (*).
Table 1. Results of the generalized linear model (GLM) assessing the effects of environmental/anthropogenic variables on elongated tortoise presence/absence. The model includes the variable parameter estimates (β), standard errors (SE), lower and upper confidence intervals (LCI and UCI), z-values, and associated p-values. Statistically significant predictors (p < 0.05) are indicated with an asterisk (*).
VariableEstimate (β)Std. ErrorLCIUCIz Valuep-Value
(Intercept)−20.9504179.6835383311.10.0050.9961
Ground cover−3.49661.4477−6.373−0.1612.3820.0172 *
HDI−8.10663.4036−1.487−1.332.3480.0189 *
Loamy soil21.85014179.6−8.3108353.90.0050.9959
Sandy soil7.29086787.513,523.613,538.20.0010.9992
Silty soil18.08864179.6−8313.98350.10.0040.9966
Canopy cover0.73430.6872−0.6312.0991.0540.2919
Settlement distance−0.89940.8387−2.5660.76731.0580.2902
Invasive species (presence)0.89091.6712−2.4414.2220.5240.6003
Sal forest1.33041.3745−1.4104.0710.9510.3414
Wetland0.87483.4994−6.1027.8520.2460.8059
Table 2. Socio-demographics of the respondents.
Table 2. Socio-demographics of the respondents.
Socio-Demographic StatusCategoryTotalPercentage (%)
GenderMale7632
Female16058
AgeYoung adult (18–39)8737
Middle age (40–59)11348
Old age (>60)3615
EducationIlliterate9038
Primary125
Secondary5423
Higher secondary5624
University level2410
EthnicityBrahmin8034
Chettri5925
Janajati7933
Madhesi188
OccupationAgriculture18478
Business52
Employee3515
Student125
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MDPI and ACS Style

Limbu, K.; Subba, A.; Limbu, N.; Khanal, L.; Kyes, R.C. Ecological Drivers and Community Perceptions: Conservation Challenges for the Critically Endangered Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) in Jalthal Forest, Eastern Nepal. Diversity 2025, 17, 458. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17070458

AMA Style

Limbu K, Subba A, Limbu N, Khanal L, Kyes RC. Ecological Drivers and Community Perceptions: Conservation Challenges for the Critically Endangered Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) in Jalthal Forest, Eastern Nepal. Diversity. 2025; 17(7):458. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17070458

Chicago/Turabian Style

Limbu, Kamala, Asmit Subba, Nishan Limbu, Laxman Khanal, and Randall C. Kyes. 2025. "Ecological Drivers and Community Perceptions: Conservation Challenges for the Critically Endangered Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) in Jalthal Forest, Eastern Nepal" Diversity 17, no. 7: 458. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17070458

APA Style

Limbu, K., Subba, A., Limbu, N., Khanal, L., & Kyes, R. C. (2025). Ecological Drivers and Community Perceptions: Conservation Challenges for the Critically Endangered Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) in Jalthal Forest, Eastern Nepal. Diversity, 17(7), 458. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17070458

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