The Impact of Vegetation Changes in Savanna Ecosystems on Tick Populations in Wildlife: Implications for Ecosystem Management

Abstract

Vegetation changes in savanna ecosystems are playing an increasingly important role in shaping tick populations and the spread of tick-borne diseases, with consequences for both wildlife and livestock health. This study examines how factors such as climate variability, land use, vegetation structures, and host availability influence tick survival, distribution, and behavior. As grasslands degrade and woody plants become more dominant, ticks are finding more suitable habitats, often supported by microclimatic conditions that favor their development. At the same time, increased contact between domestic and wild animals is facilitating the transmission of pathogens. This review highlights how seasonal patterns, fire regimes, grazing pressure, and climate change are driving shifts in tick activity and expanding their geographical range. These changes increase the risk of disease for animals and humans alike. Addressing these challenges calls for integrated management strategies that include vegetation control, host population monitoring, and sustainable vector control methods. A holistic approach that connects ecological, animal, and human health perspectives is essential for effective disease prevention and long-term ecosystem management.

1. Introduction

Ticks are critical vectors of various zoonotic pathogens, significantly impacting livestock, wildlife, and human health [1]. Vegetation changes in savanna ecosystems influence tick populations by altering habitat suitability, host availability, and microclimatic conditions [2,3]. Moreover, the increasing interaction between domestic and wild animals due to habitat encroachment has further contributed to the rise in tick-borne disease prevalence [4,5]. Understanding how vegetation dynamics affect tick distribution and disease transmission is essential for effective ecosystem management and disease control. Increasing vegetation fragmentation and biodiversity loss have been shown to amplify zoonotic disease risks by altering tick–host dynamics and ecosystem stability, supporting a growing consensus on the ecological determinants of disease emergence [6]. Ticks serve as vectors for several bacterial, protozoan, and viral pathogens, including Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., and Theileria spp. [7,8,9,10,11,12]. The conceptual diagram in Figure 1 synthesizes the tick life cycle, host interactions, and landscape drivers such as climate change, habitat fragmentation, and land use, demonstrating how these factors collectively influence vegetation, tick development, host contact, and disease transmission dynamics. The distribution and abundance of ticks in savanna ecosystems are driven by the vegetation structure, which influences tick survival, questing behavior, and host accessibility [13,14]. For instance, a study in Costa Rica’s Palo Verde National Park has demonstrated that habitat characteristics directly impact the tick species composition and density [15]. Ticks also host endosymbiotic bacteria, such as Coxiella-like endosymbionts (CLEs), which may influence tick survival and pathogen maintenance [16,17]. Unlike Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, CLEs are considered mutualistic rather than pathogenic [16]. However, the role of these symbionts in tick adaptation to changing environments remains an area of ongoing research.

Vegetation changes, including deforestation, bush encroachment, and alterations in grassland cover, modify tick habitats by affecting moisture retention, shading, and host availability. As a result, these factors can drive shifts in tick population dynamics and pathogen transmission [18,19]. In particular, high-altitude ecosystems have seen tick populations expanding into previously unsuitable environments due to climate change and habitat modifications, thereby increasing the disease risks for wildlife such as the Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) [18,20]. In African savannas, climatic variables such as temperature and rainfall patterns are the primary determinants of tick survival and spread [21]. In some regions, the expansion of woody vegetation has been associated with changes in tick species composition, favoring those adapted to shaded microhabitats [22]. Conversely, increased grassland degradation may reduce the suitable habitats for some tick species, altering host–tick interactions and potentially affecting disease transmission patterns [23,24].

Furthermore, surveillance efforts in various regions, including Belize, Nigeria, and Thailand, have highlighted the importance of monitoring tick-borne diseases due to their growing impact on public and veterinary health [25,26,27]. Given ticks’ ecological importance and role in disease transmission, understanding how vegetation changes in savanna ecosystems influence tick populations is crucial for the development of sustainable management strategies. Thus, continued research is essential to inform conservation policies, mitigate disease risks, and maintain ecosystem health in these dynamic landscapes.

2. Vegetation Changes in Savanna Ecosystems

2.1. Temperature and Humidity Effects on Tick Survival

Ticks thrive within an optimal temperature range, where their activity and survival rates are highest [28,29]. In savanna ecosystems, these temperature thresholds are particularly significant due to marked seasonal variation, including hot, dry periods and cooler, wetter seasons. However, extreme temperatures can significantly impact tick mortality. For instance, cold temperatures, particularly those below freezing, increase mortality, although some species possess antifreeze compounds in their hemolymph that allow them to endure harsh conditions [23,29]. Although freezing conditions are uncommon in most savanna regions, cooler winter nights may reduce tick activity and delay development. Conversely, excessively high temperatures, especially when combined with low humidity, can lead to desiccation and increased mortality [30,31]. The temperature also plays a crucial role in tick development and reproduction, affecting the duration of life cycle stages and overall population dynamics. Equally important is the humidity, as ticks require sufficient moisture to prevent desiccation [32,33]. Low humidity levels can drastically reduce survival, whereas high humidity supports tick persistence even in warmer climates [30,31]. Field observations in South African provinces revealed that the tick abundance strongly correlates with seasonal fluctuations in humidity and vegetation greenness [21]. Ticks tend to inhabit moist environments, such as leaf litter or forested areas, where they can rehydrate and conserve energy [24]. Tick development and questing behavior are tightly linked to localized microclimatic conditions, which vary with the vegetation cover and habitat heterogeneity [34]. In savanna settings, such microhabitats include shaded thickets, riparian zones, and patches of dense grass cover, where moisture is retained longer into the dry season. Their questing behavior, in which they position themselves on vegetation to latch onto a host, is influenced by the temperature and humidity, with drier conditions generally leading to reduced activity [35].

Additionally, vegetation is a crucial buffer, providing shelter from environmental extremes, protecting against desiccation, and facilitating rehydration [28,36]. Moreover, ticks adjust their questing height in response to the temperature and relative humidity, demonstrating their strong dependence on environmental factors for survival and activity [22]. For example, the temperature and humidity significantly affect Dermacentor reticulatus larval survival, with optimal hatching between 20 and 34 °C and at relative humidity levels approaching 100% [37]. Interestingly, even in field conditions, larvae of questing ticks have been collected at temperatures above 30 °C and in dry environments with relative humidity as low as 25.5%, suggesting that some species tolerate low-humidity environments [38]. However, in savanna ecosystems, prolonged dry seasons often restrict such activity to the early morning and late afternoon periods, when the humidity is temporarily higher. Research in Southern African savannas has shown that seasonal rainfall patterns and woody plant cover strongly influence the availability of these refugia and, consequently, the distribution and abundance of ticks.

2.2. Habitat Modification and Tick Distribution

Environmental conditions, host availability, and habitat structures are crucial in influencing the distribution of tick-borne pathogens [38,39,40]. Habitat modifications, such as forest fragmentation and climate change, alter tick populations by affecting host assemblages and microclimatic conditions [23,33,38]. Moreover, various environmental factors, including the forest composition, grasslands, and human land use, impact the distribution of ticks and tick-borne viruses [14,39,41,42]. In South Africa, a multi-scale analysis across agricultural landscapes demonstrated that vegetation heterogeneity and the landscape composition significantly influence tick occupancy and abundance [14]. For instance, forest fragmentation increases the tick density by facilitating host movement and interaction, thereby enhancing tick transmission [43]. In addition, edge effects, particularly in habitat transition zones such as forest edges, create favorable conditions for certain tick species, increasing their populations and the risk of human and animal encounters [44]. Human-modified environments, including gardens, parks, and green spaces, provide suitable habitats for tick hosts, further promoting proliferation [45]. Conversely, changes in vegetation, such as removing leaf litter and tall grasses, can reduce tick numbers by eliminating essential shelter and moisture sources.

Furthermore, studies show that specific tick-borne pathogens, such as Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus (SFTSV) and Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus (TBEV), are more prevalent in mixed forests, pine forests, and grasslands, suggesting that different vegetation structures play a role in tick survival and pathogen persistence [46,47]. Significant environmental changes may affect tick distributions in highly biodiverse but threatened ecosystems, such as the Atlantic rainforest biome [48,49,50,51]. Additionally, seasonal variations in tick questing behavior indicate a strong link between climate conditions and tick activity patterns [52]. Deforestation and human land use practices significantly impact tick survival and pathogen transmission [38]. Moreover, the prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi in questing ticks varies across different ecosystems, highlighting the role of vegetation in pathogen persistence [53]. The altitude also influences tick distribution, with Amblyomma incisum preferring lower elevations and Amblyomma coelebs Neumann, 1899, favoring higher altitudes [54].

2.3. Seasonal Abundance and Tick Behavior

Tick larvae, which are in their six-legged stage, can be found in various locations, while nymphs and adult ticks, which have eight legs, are particularly abundant in forested areas [15]. Forest ecosystems provide ideal conditions for tick survival and development during their host-seeking periods, primarily due to higher humidity levels and a greater concentration of potential hosts [55]. The moist environment in forests is crucial for tick survival, as the understory vegetation and leaf litter create a humid microclimate that protects ticks from desiccation [15]. In Costa Rican dry forests, which share savanna-like seasonality, the tick abundance and activity were closely tied to the vegetation density, shade cover, and seasonal rainfall [15]. Additionally, forests support a higher diversity and density of vertebrate hosts than open habitats, enabling ticks to complete their life cycles more efficiently. Research has consistently shown that wooded environments harbor higher tick densities than open landscapes, highlighting the role of forests in sustaining tick populations [55].

Furthermore, the life cycle of ticks influences their seasonal activity patterns, with larvae and nymphs often being more active in the warmer months, while adult ticks become more prominent in the fall [56]. Seasonal fluctuations in tick populations suggest a peak in reproductive activity during the dry season, which correlates with changes in vegetation and host movement patterns [57]. Classic fieldwork in the Eastern Cape showed that Amblyomma hebraeum Koch, 1844, exhibits clear seasonal activity peaks aligned with rainfall and vegetation cover changes [58]. In addition, different tick species exhibit unique seasonal behaviors and environmental preferences. For example, Ixodes scapularis Say, 1821 (blacklegged tick), is most active during the fall (October to November) and spring (April to May) [23,32,59]. These variations in host availability, life stages, and species-specific activity patterns are further influenced by climate change, which alters the temperature and precipitation patterns, potentially shifting ticks’ activity and distribution [32].

2.4. Climate Change and Vegetation Dynamics

Climate change has emerged as a major driver of shifts in tick distribution, seasonality, and pathogen transmission cycles globally, including within savanna regions. Climate variability shapes the vegetation structures in savanna ecosystems [60], which in turn influences habitat suitability for various organisms, including ticks. Modeling studies show that interannual rainfall variability significantly alters savanna vegetation patterns, indirectly influencing tick habitat suitability and host movement [60]. Climate change further exacerbates these effects by altering the temperature and precipitation patterns, enabling ticks to expand into previously unsuitable regions while enhancing their survival and activity [41,61]. Climate change is increasingly recognized as a key ecological driver influencing the tick distribution, phenology, and host–vector interactions in African savanna ecosystems. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and extended dry seasons are reshaping the vegetation structure and host movement, which in turn impact ticks’ survival, reproductive cycles, and geographic spread. For instance, predictive modeling by Olwoch [62] projected the significant climate-driven expansion of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann, 1901, the vector of East Coast fever, into drier savanna regions that were previously considered unsuitable. Nyangiwe [63] observed the displacement of Boophilus decoloratus Koch, 1844, by the invasive Rhipicephalus microplus (Canestrini, 1888) in the Eastern Cape, a transition likely facilitated by increasing ambient temperatures and humidity shifts. In East African rangelands, seasonal changes in vegetation and rainfall are shown to significantly influence tick activity periods and host contact rates, particularly under scenarios of climate stress [64].

Beyond individual species expansions, climate variability affects entire tick communities and pathogen circulation. Studies by Estrada-Peña [22] and Ogden [23] emphasize that increased climatic suitability in savanna zones may lead not only to range expansion but also to changes in tick abundance and seasonal dynamics, potentially intensifying the disease pressure. This is especially concerning in regions with poor veterinary infrastructure or shifting land use patterns. As vegetation cover becomes patchier or converts from grassland to shrubland, microclimates that are favorable for tick persistence may expand, further enhancing their survival through desiccation resistance. Such transitions, coupled with host distribution changes, suggest that tick-borne diseases could become more frequent or severe under ongoing climatic stress.

Climate-induced shifts in host phenology and habitat suitability are likely to intensify tick-borne disease transmission risks, particularly in transitional ecosystems such as savannas [23]. Variations in temperature and rainfall patterns influence the microclimatic conditions necessary for tick survival [65,66]. Ticks are highly influenced by the temperature and humidity, with warm and humid conditions generally enhancing their survival and activity, while extreme temperatures and low humidity can significantly reduce their viability [23]. High temperatures can accelerate tick molting processes, but extreme heat and drought conditions can also lead to desiccation, significantly reducing tick populations [67]. Due to climate change, warmer temperatures and longer growing seasons enable ticks to expand their ranges into previously unsuitable, cooler regions, both geographically and at higher altitudes [32,38,68]. For instance, the spread of Ixodes ricinus, a European tick species, has been observed in northern latitudes, where it was previously unable to survive. Additionally, milder winters and extended spring and autumn seasons lead to prolonged tick activity, allowing ticks to remain active for a more significant portion of the year [23,38]. This increased activity period increases the likelihood of encounters with hosts, enhancing the risk of pathogen transmission. Moreover, climate change influences vegetation patterns, indirectly affecting tick populations by creating new or more favorable habitats. For example, an increase in shrubby vegetation and prolonged growing seasons may support higher tick densities by providing optimal conditions for survival [38]. As a result, the combination of shifting tick distributions, extended activity periods, and changes in habitat can lead to a greater risk of tick-borne diseases, such as Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis, posing significant public health concerns for both humans and animals [3,68]. Additionally, Theileria spp. are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, where the climatic conditions favor tick survival and transmission [69].

2.5. Fire and Grazing Influences on Vegetation

Frequent wildfires and grazing patterns affect tick abundance and vegetation heterogeneity [70]. In heavily grazed areas, ticks experience higher mortality rates due to reduced vegetation cover, which leads to increased exposure to direct sunlight and dehydration. Moreover, changes in wildlife populations and grazing patterns can alter tick–host interactions, potentially influencing disease transmission cycles [71]. Wild ungulates and livestock grazing modify habitat structures, affecting tick survival and host availability [72]. In addition, fire regimes significantly impact tick populations by destroying microhabitats and reducing vegetation cover [58,73]. As a result, the interaction between the fire frequency, grazing pressure, and habitat availability plays a vital role in controlling tick populations and shaping the disease risk dynamics in savanna ecosystems.

2.6. Human Land Use and Habitat Fragmentation

Human-driven land use changes, including deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization, reshape natural landscapes, creating fragmented habitats that serve as hotspots for tick proliferation [74]. Land fragmentation due to agricultural expansion has been linked to increased tick prevalence, as disturbed environments provide new host availability [75,76,77]. Furthermore, agricultural expansion can increase tick populations by providing additional hosts, such as livestock [76,77]. Deforestation and urbanization contribute to shifts in tick distribution, affecting the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens [39,78,79]. In regions with fragmented forested areas, tick densities are often the highest at habitat transition zones, where hosts such as deer and rodents are concentrated [80]. Additionally, habitat alteration can lead to the decline of key predator populations, which help to regulate tick densities. Urban green spaces and forest edges have emerged as key foci for tick presence due to high host densities and fragmented vegetation, highlighting the urban ecology dimension of tick-borne risks [81]. Reforestation and increased human activity in mountain regions have also contributed to shifts in tick distribution and pathogen transmission risks [18,38,41,82].

3. Vegetation Types and Tick Distribution

3.1. Tick Distribution in Different Vegetation Types

Ticks, such as I. scapularis (black-legged tick), are commonly associated with dense vegetation and wooded areas, where they thrive in closed-canopy forests and brush-filled habitats. These environments provide ideal conditions for ticks by offering high humidity levels and access to various hosts, including Mus musculus (mice), Odocoileus spp. (deer), Vulpes spp. (foxes), Aves (birds), and other warm-blooded animals [83]. Studies have shown that tick densities are exceptionally high in forest interiors and areas with well-developed shrub layers, which create suitable microclimatic conditions for their survival [84]. While I. scapularis is predominantly found in dense forests, it can also inhabit open-canopy fields and grasslands, seeking hosts in grassy and low-vegetation habitats [83].

Additionally, ticks are frequently found near infrastructure, such as trails and green spaces, where host activity is concentrated [84]. In these areas, tick populations can often be predicted based on the surrounding forest characteristics, highlighting the importance of targeted management efforts to reduce the risk of tick-borne disease transmission. The presence of Dermacentor reticulatus larvae and nymphs in meadow habitats, particularly leaf litter and grassy waysides, suggests that they can survive outside host burrows under specific environmental conditions [85,86]. The tick questing height on vegetation strongly correlates with the host size and environmental factors, with adult ticks found higher in the vegetation than nymphs and larvae [87]. As illustrated in Figure 2, different tick species are associated with distinct vegetation types across savanna landscapes. These associations reflect microhabitat preferences related to the temperature, humidity, and vegetation cover.

3.2. Tick Species and Habitat Associations

Ticks exhibit diverse habitat preferences and host associations, which are crucial in various ecosystems. Ixodes scapularis thrives in closed-canopy forests and dense vegetation, often occupying edge habitats and transitional zones between wooded areas and open landscapes [83]. In contrast, Dermacentor variabilis Say, 1821 (American dog tick), is typically found in grasslands, open fields, and along the edges of wooded areas, favoring warmer, drier environments compared to I. scapularis. Amblyomma species also show specific habitat preferences, with Amblyomma longirostre primarily distributed in tropical regions, while A. hebraeum is commonly found on Syncerus caffer (buffalo), particularly in the inguinal and axillary regions. Similarly, Rhipicephalus evertsi Neumann, 1897, is also associated with S. caffer, but it is exclusively found in the perianal area [88,89]. Empirical research on free-ranging African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in savannas revealed that the tick load and niche segregation among tick species are influenced by the host immune response and microhabitat availability [88]. Birds serve as key hosts for several tick species. Ixodes ricinus Linnaeus, 1758, is frequently found on ground-feeding Aves (birds) within forest habitats, while Haemaphysalis concinna is often associated with reed-dwelling, long-distance migratory Aves (birds) that feed above ground level [90]. Additionally, Hyalomma species, including Hyalomma marginatum and Hyalomma rufipes Koch, 1844, are known for their prolonged attachment to avian hosts, allowing them to be transported across vast distances via bird migration [91]. Other tick species demonstrate specific host preferences. Ixodes rubicundus (Karoo paralysis tick) is typically found on bovids, felids, rabbits, and Mus musculus (mice), while Amblyomma marmoreum primarily parasitizes Lepus saxatilis (scrub hare) [92]. In South Africa, Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus remain the dominant tick genera, illustrating the complex interactions between ticks, their hosts, and the environment [93]. A systematic review of ticks in South African wildlife confirmed broad host associations and geographic variations in tick-borne pathogen presence, reflecting regional vegetation and host biodiversity patterns [92]. Figure 3 highlights the host specificity of different tick species, demonstrating associations with wildlife (e.g., birds, hares, buffalo) and domestic animals (e.g., cattle, rodents). These host relationships play a key role in sustaining tick populations and facilitating zoonotic transmission. In Southern African savannas, studies have shown that the immune systems of wild ungulates play a crucial role in shaping tick species distributions and coexistence. Specifically, the immune responses of the host can lead to different tick species occupying distinct areas on the host’s body, a phenomenon known as niche segregation. This segregation, influenced by the host’s immune system, impacts how different tick species coexist and are distributed within the savanna ecosystem [88,94,95].

3.3. Host Availability and Tick Abundance

Ticks are obligate blood feeders, requiring a blood meal from a host to survive and complete their life cycle [96,97]. Their multi-host life cycle involves feeding on different hosts at various stages, including the larva, nymph, and adult. Host availability and diversity directly influence tick success and population dynamics, as their survival depends on access to suitable blood sources [96,97,98]. Several factors determine host availability and, consequently, tick abundance. In the Okavango Delta, the tick abundance in cattle was shown to be influenced by the proximity to wildlife, host density, and microclimatic conditions such as vegetation cover and the NDVI [98]. The host density plays a crucial role, as higher densities of suitable hosts provide more feeding opportunities, increasing tick populations [72,98,99]. The host species composition also affects the tick distribution, as different species exhibit varying levels of susceptibility to tick infestations. Additionally, the habitat structure, including the type of environment (e.g., forests, grasslands) and vegetation patterns, influences host and tick distribution by shaping the ecological conditions necessary for their survival [72,100]. An increase in host abundance initially leads to a larger tick population as more blood sources become available, supporting greater densities of questing ticks [96]. Recent surveys of cattle ticks across South African provinces highlighted how differences in grazing systems, vegetation types, and host densities drive the local tick diversity and abundance [93]. However, as the host density continues to rise, a saturating effect may occur, where the feeding adult tick population stabilizes, and fewer ticks remain questing for new hosts due to improved access to blood meals. This dynamic has significant consequences for host species. A rise in tick abundance can lead to an increased prevalence of infections as both ticks and their hosts become more likely to carry and transmit pathogens [96]. Consequently, the spread of tick-borne diseases can impact wildlife, livestock, and human health, posing risks to ecosystems and agricultural productivity [97].

3.4. Vegetation and Disease Transmission Dynamics

Host–tick interactions are influenced by the types of hosts that frequent specific vegetation types, affecting the presence and transmission dynamics of tick-borne pathogens [45,81,101]. The composition and structure of vegetation play a crucial role in determining the pathogen prevalence within a given area. Changes in vegetation cover can amplify or inhibit the transmission of tick-borne diseases by altering the host abundance, tick densities, and environmental conditions favorable for pathogen survival [23,81]. The role of the forest composition and structure in modulating pathogen prevalence through host regulation and microclimate buffering has been extensively reviewed, reinforcing the vegetation–disease link [102]. Certain vegetation types create conditions that either enhance or suppress the spread of tick-borne diseases. For example, in the case of Lyme disease, studies have shown that increased tree canopy cover in some regions correlates with larger populations of I. scapularis, subsequently raising the risk of Lyme disease transmission. Similarly, vegetation modification can influence the prevalence of tick-borne diseases such as babesiosis, anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and Powassan encephalitis [103]. Understanding the ecological interactions between vegetation, host communities, and tick populations is essential in predicting disease risks and implementing effective management strategies to mitigate tick-borne pathogen transmission.

4. Conservation and Disease Management Strategies

4.1. Integrated Tick Control and Vegetation Management

Integrated tick control measures should consider vegetation management, as the habitat structure directly influences tick survival and pathogen transmission rates. Sustainable land management strategies, such as controlled burns, rotational grazing, and removing invasive plant species, have been proposed to manage tick populations while maintaining biodiversity [104]. Controlled burns help to disrupt tick life cycles by reducing the vegetation density and altering the microclimatic conditions, which can lead to lower tick survival rates. Rotational grazing prevents overgrazing, maintaining healthy vegetation cover that supports natural tick predators and disrupts tick–host interactions. Additionally, removing invasive plant species can restore natural habitats, reducing tick hotspots and limiting their ability to establish in disturbed environments. Effective vector control strategies require the continued monitoring of tick populations in different vegetation zones to identify high-risk areas and implement targeted interventions [105].

4.2. Wildlife Management and Host Control

Reducing tick populations and mitigating the risk of tick-borne diseases require a multifaceted approach incorporating host management, habitat modification, chemical control, and biological interventions. Targeted host management is an effective strategy, as reducing the populations of key wildlife hosts, such as rodents and wild boars, can limit the availability of blood meals and breeding grounds for ticks. Similarly, habitat modification, such as reducing vegetation that provides shade and moisture, can create less favorable conditions for tick survival. Chemical control measures, including acaricide application through rodent baits or broadcast treatments, remain widely used for the control of tick populations. However, biological control agents, such as entomopathogenic fungi, offer an eco-friendly alternative for tick suppression [4,106,107]. Beyond tick control, reducing the disease risk requires the breaking of transmission cycles by limiting the number of reservoir hosts that carry pathogens. Public health measures are crucial, requiring collaboration between wildlife and health agencies to minimize tick-borne diseases. Additionally, the early detection and treatment of infections can prevent widespread outbreaks and reduce the disease severity in affected populations [4]. Several targeted interventions have shown promise in reducing tick populations and disease transmission. Rodent-targeted approaches have been used to curb tick infestations, including self-applicating acaricides via baited treatment stations or the oral delivery of acaricides, antibiotics, or vaccines [4,108]. Similarly, wild boar management programs in areas with high tick densities can help to mitigate the spread of diseases such as African swine fever [109]. Despite these strategies, challenges remain. The environmental impact must be carefully considered to ensure that management efforts do not disrupt ecosystems or harm non-target species. Additionally, public perception plays a crucial role in the success of wildlife and tick control programs, as the public acceptance of these interventions is essential for implementation.

4.3. Habitat and Vector Surveillance

Integrated tick management strategies should focus on habitat conservation and the control of wildlife hosts, as these factors directly influence the tick distribution and abundance [110,111,112]. By maintaining ecological balance through habitat conservation, tick populations can be naturally regulated, reducing their impacts on public health and livestock. Acarological surveillance programs, combined with habitat modification strategies, can aid in reducing tick populations in high-risk areas [113]. Regular surveillance allows researchers to monitor tick activity, identify emerging threats, and assess the effectiveness of control measures. GIS-based tick risk maps provide an innovative tool for the identification of areas where tick-borne diseases are more likely to emerge, enabling more efficient control strategies [114]. Public health officials and ecologists can use geospatial analysis to predict disease hotspots and optimize intervention efforts. Monitoring tick populations across various ecosystems will improve our understanding of their distribution patterns and inform targeted interventions. Adaptive management approaches that integrate real-time data from tick monitoring will enhance strategic decision-making for tick control and disease prevention.

4.4. Conservation Efforts and Biodiversity Protection

A One Health framework, integrating human, animal, and environmental health, is essential in addressing tick-borne disease risks in savanna ecosystems. By considering the interconnectedness of these factors, management efforts can achieve more effective and sustainable disease control. Conservation efforts must balance biodiversity protection and vector control strategies to ensure long-term ecosystem stability [115]. Targeted surveillance programs for key wildlife hosts, such as wild goats (genus Capra) and other ungulates, can provide insights into long-term pathogen circulation trends [116]. Long-term climate monitoring, habitat conservation, and host population management are critical components of sustainable tick control programs [117]. Researchers can anticipate tick population shifts and potential disease outbreaks by analyzing climate patterns and habitat changes.

Understanding ecological interactions between ticks, hosts, and environmental factors will allow for more effective and sustainable management practices. A holistic approach integrating vector surveillance, ecological conservation, and public health measures will be essential in reducing the tick-borne disease risks in both wildlife and human populations.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1. Recommendations

The effective management of tick populations and tick-borne disease risks in savanna ecosystems requires a multi-dimensional approach that integrates habitat, host, and vector control with robust surveillance and community engagement. Based on the reviewed literature, several ecologically grounded interventions are recommended for sustainable tick control in African savannas.

Prescribed burning, particularly at a high intensity, has been shown to significantly reduce tick populations by increasing tick mortality and disrupting critical habitats such as leaf litter, which support immature life stages; this effect is especially pronounced with frequent, well-timed burns [118]. Such fire regimes also influence host availability and movement, which further limits tick–host encounters. Complementing this, rotational grazing helps to prevent overgrazing, maintain habitat heterogeneity, and reduce host aggregation factors that directly affect tick abundance [119,120]. In areas experiencing woody plant encroachment, selective bush thinning is advisable to restore open grassland conditions, which are less favorable for tick development [121]. Host management strategies are equally important, particularly at the wildlife–livestock interface, where cross-species transmission is likely. The strategic application of acaricides during peak activity periods has demonstrated significant reductions in tick infestations in both controlled and field settings [122,123]. Moreover, vaccination programs targeting pathogens such as Theileria parva (Theiler, 1904) and Anaplasma marginale Theiler, 1910, should be expanded, especially in regions where wildlife and livestock coexist [124,125]. The routine inspection and manual removal of ticks from livestock can further reduce the risk of pathogen spread and complement chemical control strategies.

Vector control can be enhanced through the integration of biological methods. Entomopathogenic fungi like Metarhizium anisopliae have shown promising results in reducing tick populations under semi-arid conditions, offering an environmentally sustainable alternative to synthetic acaricides [122,126,127]. Environmental control measures such as managing livestock resting sites, improving kraal hygiene, and reducing undergrowth around animal enclosures can also decrease the availability of favorable microhabitats for ticks. To support these efforts, surveillance and predictive modeling must be strengthened. Incorporating remote sensing, GIS-based habitat mapping, and routine field surveys provides critical data for the monitoring of tick distributions and identification of emerging hotspots [128,129]. These tools also support the development of early warning systems and guide targeted interventions based on ecological risk assessments. Equally vital is community awareness and education. Empowering local farmers and animal health workers with knowledge about tick biology, vector–host interactions, and correct acaricide use enhances the adoption of control practices and promotes long-term behavioral change [130,131]. Participatory extension programs and culturally relevant communication strategies are key to ensuring the uptake and sustainability of interventions in rural communities.

Lastly, future research should focus on the influence of woody encroachment on tick–host dynamics, particularly as savanna ecosystems undergo ecological transitions. There is also a need to evaluate the long-term impacts of climate variability on the tick phenology, geographic distribution, and vector competence.

5.2. Conclusions

This review highlights the multifaceted ecological interactions shaping tick distribution and the transmission of tick-borne pathogens in savanna ecosystems. The vegetation structure, rainfall variability, host abundance, and anthropogenic land use interact to determine the spatial and temporal dynamics of tick populations. These relationships are particularly pronounced in savanna regions, where the wildlife–livestock interface intensifies vector–host–pathogen cycles.

To respond to these challenges, effective tick control in savannas must move beyond single-intervention approaches. Evidence supports integrated vegetation management, host-focused surveillance, environmentally sensitive vector control, and community engagement as key pillars of sustainable tick management. Interventions must be ecologically grounded, locally adaptable, and coordinated across sectors to reduce the disease burden and enhance livestock productivity. Long-term monitoring and research are essential to evaluate management effectiveness, anticipate ecological shifts, and inform regionally appropriate strategies.