The Role of Crop, Livestock, and Farmed Aquatic Intraspecific Diversity in Maintaining Ecosystem Services
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology and Literature Characteristics
3. Intraspecific Genetic Resources of Crops, Livestock, and Aquaculture and Their Role in Supporting and Regulating Ecosystems
Temporal and Spatial Scales
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Definition | Crop | Livestock | Aquaculture | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pest and disease control | 6 | 22 | 30 | 10 |
Water conditions and regulation of soil quality | 5 | 12 | 13 | 19 |
Lifecycle maintenance through the flow of reproductive material | 2 | 15 | 4 | 0 |
Water flow and extreme-water-event regulation | 3 | 23 | 10 | 0 |
Maintenance of soil and soil conditions | 3 | 7 | 12 | 0 |
Nutrient cycling in soil and water | 3 | 11 | 9 | 13 |
Habitat maintenance and protection | 15 | 11 | 15 | 20 |
World Region or General/Experiment/Global | Number of Publications |
---|---|
General/Experiment/Global | 102 |
Africa | 23 |
Europe | 34 |
Asia | 16 |
North America | 8 |
Latin America and the Caribbeans | 13 |
Oceania | 3 |
Ecosystem service and definition/sector/counterfactual (CF) and role (R) The first definitions and characterization of the target ecosystem services were found in the millennium ecosystem assessment [25] | |
Pest and disease control regulating pests and diseases includes reduction in crop damage by herbivory (e.g., insects) and pathogens and reduction in the risk of diseases and parasites to animals and farmed aquatic resources [27,50,51,52]. | |
Crop CF Genetic uniformity of crops is linked to higher risks of epidemics [53,54,55] R The use of intraspecific crop diversity in the form of variety multilines, mixtures, and genetically variable populations is an efficient ecological approach for pest and disease control. Examples are found for apple trees, bananas and plantains, common beans, potatoes, rice, and wheat in various production systems [5,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73]. | |
Livestock CF It has been shown that homogeneous populations do not suffer more epidemics, on average, but have more risks of catastrophic epidemics [74,75] R Different mathematical models indicate that high species diversity and intraspecific diversity limits the occurrence and strength of outbreaks. Many mammalian and avian indigenous breeds around the world show specific traits of tolerance or resistance to infectious and parasitic diseases and have high inner-breed genetic variability. More genetically diverse breeds will adapt better to changing contexts. The selection of specific resistance and tolerance traits for improved breeds is an important strategy in disease management. In the case of sheep and goats, specific breeds have shown tolerance to gastrointestinal worms, liver fluke, scrapie, and foot rot. Indigenous chickens, because of natural selection, under scavenging conditions, have inherited robustness and resistance to various diseases and have better survival rates than commercial breeds under village production conditions. Although a limited number of breeds are found in a single pasture, at larger levels, the diversity of landscapes and conditions requires adapted breeds for each of them [24,40,43,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100]. | |
Aquaculture CF Low intraspecific diversity for fish, algae, and molluscs is associated with higher virulence of and greater vulnerability to diseases and parasites [87,101,102,103,104]. R Several publications highlight the role of genetic diversity in the regulation of parasites and diseases in cultured and non-cultured aquatic organisms. The genetic diversity of host populations slows the adaptation of parasites [102,105,106,107,108,109]. | |
Water conditions and regulation of soil quality Water and soil quality, in a context of ecosystem service, are defined by the level of pollution and its impact on human, animal, and natural ecosystems’ health. Water quality is determined by the composition of runoff coming from, inter alia, agriculture. Moreover, soil quality depends on soil capacity to function [110,111,112,113,114]. | |
Crop CF Modern farming systems often imply high-external inputs (pesticides, fertilizers, antibiotics, hormones, water…) and low genetic diversity. Homogeneity in farmed crop varieties, livestock breeds and fish strains requires the use of these external inputs to support and maintain productivity [115]. R Cultivation of diverse local varieties or cultivars adapted to soil conditions and quality allows a limited use of chemical inputs and reduces the vulnerability of agroecosystems to biotic and abiotic stresses. Less need for chemical inputs in agriculture will preserve and improve soil quality. The role of the intraspecific diversity in this case is found at a larger level than on the field; rather, at agroecosystem level, a diversity of variety is requested for each specific condition. Intraspecific diversity via limiting the occurrence of pests and diseases reduces infestations and diseases and therefore the use of pesticides and the resulting pollution. For soil rehabilitation and the production on degraded soils, examples exist where intraspecific diversity is key [10,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125]. | |
Livestock CF No reference found for the counterfactual except the lack of adaptedness in harsh environments preventing the very presence of animals. R Overgrazing accelerates soil erosion; however, adapted rangeland management and grazing practices can support soil maintenance, controlling weed development and preventing fire and erosion. Breed effects on grazing behaviours have been observed for sheep and cattle. At the pasture level, there might be only one breed; however, in harsh conditions, breeds found are commonly indigenous ones that adapt to their environments due to their inner genetic variability. For improved breeds, the importance of the diversity is seen at larger scales but remains crucial [40,88,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136] | |
Aquaculture CF Low intraspecific diversity is associated with lower fitness and lower health and higher inbreeding risks as well as susceptibility to environmental changes and therefore prevents the provision of the service [101,102,103,104,137] R The role of bivalves such as mussels and oysters in water filtration and nutrient removal and recycling is largely recognized. Results were found at species level; however, a positive relationship between genetic diversity and growth rate was found in shellfish, and higher growth rates result in higher rates of water filtration [102,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150]. Moreover, farmed animals, plants, and algae with higher genetic diversity require less use of antibiotics and other chemicals, therefore leading to a better water quality (see pest and disease control). | |
Lifecycle maintenance through the flow of reproductive material Pollination is mediated by wind, water, or animals, mostly insects. In the context of ecosystem services, pollination generally refers to animal-assisted pollination [151]. Seed dispersal is the dispersal of the reproductive unit of a plant and is key in the long-term dynamics of plant communities [152,153]. Because of their roles in supporting biodiversity, regulating ecosystem processes, and providing natural resources, pollination and seed dispersal are considered an ecosystem service that contributes to human wellbeing [154,155]. | |
Crop CF Agricultural intensification, featuring crop uniformity, causes habitat fragmentation and degradation, meaning reduction and even disappearance of food and nesting sites for pollinators [156,157,158,159,160,161]. R Pollinator-attracting genotypes and the planting of various varieties of certain crops enhance pollination services and the quality of fruit production. In fruit trees, the self-incompatibility of some cultivars requires the use of different varieties in one plantation to allow cross-pollination. Different varieties of the same crop with different flowering times can also be planted to increase the chances of pollinator population survival to the next growing season and the types of pollinators visiting at different times during the season [158,159,162,163,164,165,166,167,168]. | |
Livestock CF No reference found for the counterfactual except the lack of adaptedness in harsh environments preventing the very presence of animals R Dispersal of seeds commonly happens through animal dung and coats, and sometimes hooves. Seed dispersal will vary depending on the fleece or fur, its structure, density and curliness or on the size and shape of hooves. Differences are noted at species level but also at breed level for some specific feeding behaviour and adaptation to specific environments [169,170,171,172]. | |
Water flow and extreme-water-event regulation Extreme events may result in phenomena such as flooding and waterlogging with excess water and, drought, and water scarcity. Water scarcity can be defined as the reduced relative and absolute availability of the water resource. Water resource quality degradation is also considered as water scarcity but has been addressed in a previous section [173,174,175]. | |
Crop CF Intensive irrigation practices are often associated with uniform crop populations that require high agricultural inputs to be productive [176]. R A permanent organic covering of the agricultural land and soil is reported to provide many benefits including soil structure and internal drainage that in turn impact soil water retention and water quantity regulation as observed in conservation agriculture and agroforestry. Varietal diversity allows improved spatial and temporal cover by providing the genetic diversity for short- and long-cycle varieties, for winter varieties, and for specific environments and soils. In situations of excess water, diversity offers options of varieties adapted to specific conditions such as excess of water. In situations where water is lacking, varietal diversity, with different responses to hydric stress and tolerance to drought, enables farmers to have a harvest in drought-prone areas. Examples are found for date palm, durum wheat, faba beans, maize, pearl millet and sorghum, okra. Adapted varieties also require lower levels of irrigation, thus sparing water for other uses [10,39,125,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195]. | |
Livestock CF Exotic breeds that have been selected for their high production potential are very homogenous genetically and require high input conditions, including water. High levels of water consumption, especially in contexts of drought and water scarcity increase the overuse of water and have effects strictly opposite to buffering [24,196,197,198]. R Indigenous and locally adapted breeds of various livestock species, particularly goats, show a good adaptation to drought conditions and heat stress. These breeds also present a high within breed genetic variability. Overall high-yield improved breeds tend to be more susceptible to heat stress. In situations where water is lacking, adapted breeds, because of their ability to survive and produce in these conditions, will consume and use lower quantities of water, thus allowing this water to be available for other purposes [24,43,95,196,199,200,201,202,203]. | |
Maintenance of soil and soil conditions Soil erosion occurs when the removal of topsoil by water, tillage, or wind is faster than the soil forming processes replacing it; this can be due to natural, animal, or human activity. Regulating soil erosion is guaranteeing a constant soil cover and preventing soil issues from exposition to erosion [204,205,206,207]. | |
Crop CF Large-scaled, highly mechanized, and monoculture-based systems, characteristics of intensive farming, often result in poor soil protection, leading to erosion [208,209]. R In agroecosystems, besides the use of conservation agriculture, the soil is left bare after one cropping cycle and is exposed to erosion. Environmental factors influence crop survival based on their traits and characteristics. When crops survive, they help to reduce erosion, because their presence all along the season ensures that the soil is covered with a continuously present biomass. This is the case for varieties of cowpea, maize, millet, rice, and sorghum. Intraspecific crop genetic diversity allows for an enhanced and extended soil cover, thus preventing soil erosion [116,190,210,211,212]. | |
Livestock CF No reference found for this counterfactual except the lack of adaptedness in harsh environments preventing the very presence of animals R Grazing management allows controlling the amount of remaining plant, limiting risks of fire and erosion. Grazing characteristics and efficiency will depend on species, breeds, and individuals. Differences in grazing behaviour will vary with animal body size, preferences for forages, age, and physiological status of the animals and plant palatability. Stocking rates should be adapted to the species and breeds depending on their grazing behaviour and performance and on the carrying capacity of the pasture. Indigenous breeds present a high within breed genetic variability, allowing them to be present in harsh conditions. For other breeds, the importance of diversity is seen at larger scales [40,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,135,136,201]. | |
Nutrient cycling in soil and water The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes the flows of nutrients between physical environments and living organisms. Examples include the carbon nitrogen and the phosphorus cycles [213,214,215]. | |
Crop CF Studies have demonstrated that monocultures alter soil health, including nutrient cycling. Continuous monoculture in the same field negatively impacts the functional microbial diversity of the soil and causes the accumulation of certain host-specific pathogens. It also leads to an imbalance in the nutrient content of the soil [216,217,218,219]. R Research on intentional introduction of soil micro-organisms to increase soil biodiversity and aid in nutrient dynamics has shown that cultivars of various crops do not respond similarly, physiologically, or morphologically, to inoculation with mycorrhizae. Studies have been conducted for fava beans, pearl millet, wheat, and olive trees. Soil respiration increases with intraspecific leaf litter diversity [220,221,222,223,224,225,226]. | |
Livestock CF No reference found for the counterfactual except the lack of adaptedness in harsh environments preventing the very presence of animals. R Grazing transfers nutrients from the pasture to the grazing animals, enabling them to grow. Some nutrients are returned to the soil through dung and urine. Different breeds present different grazing behaviour, aptitude for fibre digestibility, or capacity to “walk” a lot; this is particularly relevant for cattle breeds, and they adapt to their harsh environments. Local breeds are well adapted to thrive on food waste and crop residues and by-products. Indigenous breeds usually present a high within breed genetic variability, allowing them to be present in harsh conditions. For other breeds, the importance of the diversity is seen at larger scales [47,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234]. | |
Aquaculture CF Low intraspecific diversity is associated with lower fitness and lower health and higher inbreeding risks as well as susceptibility to environmental changes and therefore prevents the provision of the service [101,102,103,104,137]. R Farmed seaweeds and shellfish participates in nutrient cycling and nutrient removal when harvested. Results were found at species level; however, fitness and health of farmed populations depend, inter alia, on their intraspecific diversity [87,142,144,146,148,235,236,237,238]. | |
Habitat maintenance and protection A habitat is an area occupied and supporting living organisms. It is also used to mean the environmental attributes required by a particular species or its ecological niche. A habitat is made up of physical factors such as soil, moisture, range of temperature, and availability of light, as well as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence of predators [151,239,240]. | |
Crop CF Habitat fragmentation and loss is commonly reported under agricultural systems with low intraspecific diversity. The larger the scale of the monoculture, the higher the impact on native species [241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248]. R In intrinsically diverse and variable production systems, crop genetic diversity, with the diversity of traits and interactions it provides, allows niche complementarity, a better use of the resources available, including nutrients, and enhances productivity and biomass production. They are not polluted by agrochemicals and prove to be stable and resilient habitats. These types of diverse production systems tend, however, to be on small surfaces [10,116,210]. | |
Livestock CF No reference was found for this counterfactual except the lack of adaptedness in harsh environments preventing the very presence of animals. R Adapted low intensity grazing by livestock creates or maintains specific habitats for wild plants and animals, and these seminatural environments are identified as crucial for habitat maintenance. Habitats with high value or high diversity are often located in areas with particular or extreme conditions (mountainous, dryland, marginal, or forest areas) and are mostly grazed by locally adapted breeds. Different livestock species and breeds have different grazing and foraging behaviours and diet, and goats are recognized as important for preventing woody encroachment and fire risks. Indigenous breeds usually present a high within breed genetic variability, allowing them to be present in harsh conditions. For other breeds, the importance of diversity is seen at larger scales [24,40,170,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260]. | |
Aquaculture CF Low intraspecific diversity is associated with lower fitness and lower health and higher inbreeding risks as well as susceptibility to environmental changes and therefore prevents the provision of the service [101,102,103,104,137]. R Shellfish and seaweed aquaculture is largely recognized for their provision of habitat to a large diversity of aquatic organisms. Results were found at species level; however, fitness and health of farmed populations depend, inter alia, on their intraspecific diversity [109,137,143,238,261,262,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271]. |
Impact of Low Diversity | Ecosystem Service | Role of Intraspecific Diversity |
---|---|---|
Occurrence and outcome of epidemics | Pest and disease control | Means to reduce pest and disease epidemics and outcome |
Pesticide and antibiotic overuse; Nutrients and hormones toxicity | Water conditions and regulation of soil quality | Substitute for agrochemicals |
Habitat fragmentation and degradation | Lifecycle maintenance through the flow of reproductive material | Means for habitat creation and renewal |
Extreme water events (flooding/drought) | Water flow and water extreme events regulation | Means for improved water management |
Soil erosion | Maintenance of soil conditions | Means for soil maintenance and rehabilitation |
Nutrient loss | Nutrient cycling in soil and water | Means for improved nutrient cycle management |
Habitat fragmentation and degradation | Habitat maintenance and protection | Means for habitat creation and renewal |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Bernis-Fonteneau, A.; Jarvis, D.I.; Scherf, B.; Schütz, L.; Zhang, Y.; Attorre, F.; Collette, L. The Role of Crop, Livestock, and Farmed Aquatic Intraspecific Diversity in Maintaining Ecosystem Services. Diversity 2024, 16, 420. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16070420
Bernis-Fonteneau A, Jarvis DI, Scherf B, Schütz L, Zhang Y, Attorre F, Collette L. The Role of Crop, Livestock, and Farmed Aquatic Intraspecific Diversity in Maintaining Ecosystem Services. Diversity. 2024; 16(7):420. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16070420
Chicago/Turabian StyleBernis-Fonteneau, Agnès, Devra I. Jarvis, Beate Scherf, Lukas Schütz, Yanxin Zhang, Fabio Attorre, and Linda Collette. 2024. "The Role of Crop, Livestock, and Farmed Aquatic Intraspecific Diversity in Maintaining Ecosystem Services" Diversity 16, no. 7: 420. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16070420