Evaluation of Pesticides on Detritus-Inhabiting and Root-Associated Fungi in Aquatic Habitats and Potential Implications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling Location and Fungal Isolation
2.2. Molecular Identification of Fungal Isolates
2.3. Pesticides
Toxicity Assays—Detritus Inhabiting and Root-Associated Fungi
2.4. Carbon Source Assays
2.4.1. Overall Cellulase Activity
2.4.2. Starch Degradation
2.4.3. Tannic Acid Degradation
3. Results
3.1. Fungal Taxa Analyzed
3.2. Pesticide Sensitivity Assays
3.2.1. Atrazine and Mancozeb
3.2.2. Cypermethrin and Malathion
3.2.3. Species-Specific Function and Comparison to Sensitivity Assays
4. Discussion
4.1. Pesticide Sensitivity
4.2. Functional Redundancy
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sampling Locations | State | Collection | Type | Fungal Habitat |
---|---|---|---|---|
Black Moshannon State Park (42.819°/−88.407) 1 | Pennsylvania | 2014 | fen | fine detritus |
Tannersville Cranberry bog (41.037/−75.264) | Pennsylvania | 2016 | acid-poor fen | fine detritus |
Pepper Run (41.051/−77.331) | Pennsylvania | 2014 | first-order stream | fine detritus |
Nescopeck State Park (41.093/−78.059) | Pennsylvania | 2016 | first-order stream | fine detritus |
Beulah bog (42.819/−88.407) | Wisconsin | 2016 | kettle bog | fine detritus |
Honey Creek Natural Area (42.727/−88.269) | Wisconsin | 2016 | first-order stream | fine detritus |
Republic (36.792/−76.289) | Virginia | 2019 | saltwater marsh | root-associated |
Bell Mills (36.721/−76.253) | Virginia | 2019 | saltwater marsh | root-associated |
Deep Creek Lock (36.746/−76.343) | Virginia | 2019 | saltwater marsh | root-associated |
Phylum/Class | Genus | Species or Final Determination | Number of Isolates Per Taxonomic Level | Isolation 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ascomycota | ||||
Dothideomycetes | ||||
Alternaria | alternata | 2 | D | |
sp. | 4 | RA/D | ||
Boeremia | exigua | 1 | D | |
sp. | 1 | D | ||
Capnodium | sp. | 1 | D | |
Cladosporium | cladosporioides | 1 | D | |
sp. | 5 | RA | ||
Dendryphiella | sp. | 1 | D | |
Didymella | sp. | 1 | RA | |
Didymellaceae sp. | 2 | RA | ||
Epicoccum | nigrum | 1 | D | |
Exserohilum | rostratum | 3 | RA | |
Hongkongmyces | snookiorum | 1 | D | |
Hormonema | sp. | 1 | D | |
Keissleriella | yonaguniensis | 1 | D | |
Leptosphaeria | sp. | 1 | D | |
Leptosphaerulina | chartarum | 1 | D | |
Paraconiothyrium | fuckelii | 1 | D | |
Paraphaeosphaeria | sp. | 3 | RA | |
Preussia | flanaganii | 1 | D | |
Pyrenochaeta | unguis-hominis | 1 | D | |
Recurvomyces | mirabilis | 1 | D | |
Tausonia | pullulans | 1 | D | |
Toxicocladosporium | ficiniae | 1 | D | |
Unknown | 3 | RA/D | ||
Eurotiomycetes | ||||
Aspergillus | fumigatus | 1 | D | |
Exophiala | spartinae | 3 | RA | |
Paecilomyces | sp. | 1 | D | |
Penicillium | sp. | 2 | RA/D | |
Sclerocleista | ornata | 1 | D | |
Talaromyces | sp. | 1 | D | |
Thysanophora | penicilliodes | 1 | D | |
Incertae sedis | ||||
Filosporella | sp. | 1 | D | |
Pseudeurotium | sp. | 1 | D | |
Setophoma | vernoniae | 1 | D | |
Leotiomycetes | ||||
Acephala | sp. | 1 | D | |
Botryotinia | fuckeliana | 1 | D | |
Cadophora | luteo-olivacea | 1 | D | |
Godronia | cassandrae | 1 | D | |
Helicodendron | triglitziense | 1 | D | |
Loramyces | macrosporus | 1 | D | |
Patinella | hyalophaea | 1 | D | |
Phialocephala | fortinii | 1 | D | |
Trichosporiella | sp. | 1 | D | |
Urceolella | carestiana | 1 | D | |
Pezizomycetes | ||||
Peziza | sp. | 1 | RA | |
Saccharomycetes | ||||
Barnettozyma | californica | 1 | D | |
Cyberlindnera | saturnus | 1 | D | |
Debaryomyces | hansenii | 1 | D | |
Galactomyces | candidum | 1 | D | |
Geotrichum | restrictum | 1 | D | |
Pichia | kudriavzevii | 1 | D | |
Scheffersomyces | spartinae | 4 | RA | |
Sugiyamaella | paludigena | 1 | D | |
Torulaspora | delbrueckii | 1 | D | |
Wickerhamomyces | anomalus | 1 | D | |
Williopsis | sp. | 1 | D | |
Yamadazyma | mexicana | 1 | D | |
Sordariomycetes | ||||
Acremonium | rutilum | 2 | RA/D | |
Albifimbria | viridis | 1 | D | |
Alfaria | sp. | 1 | D | |
Arthrinium | arundinis | 2 | RA | |
Beauveria | brongniartii | 1 | D | |
Bionectria | sp. | 1 | D | |
Chaetomium | sp. | 1 | D | |
Chalara | vaccinii | 1 | D | |
Chaunopycnis | sp. | 1 | D | |
Clavicipitaceae sp. | 1 | D | ||
Clonostachys | sp. | 2 | RA/D | |
Colletotrichum | sp. | 3 | RA/D | |
Coniella | lustricola | 1 | D | |
Cosmospora | sp. | 1 | D | |
Elaphocordyceps | sp. | 1 | D | |
Fusarium | equiseti | 1 | D | |
sp. | 7 | RA | ||
sporotrichioides | 3 | RA | ||
Metarhizium | anisopliae | 1 | D | |
Neopestalotiopsis | sp. | 1 | D | |
Ophiostomataceae sp. | 1 | D | ||
Pestalotiopsis | sp. | 2 | RA | |
Phaeoacremonium | sp. | 1 | RA | |
Plectosphaerella | cucumerina | 1 | D | |
Sarocladium | sp. | 1 | D | |
Trichoderma | atroviride | 2 | RA | |
sp. | 19 | RA/D | ||
Volutella | sp. | 1 | D | |
Basidiomycota | ||||
Exobasidiomycetes | ||||
Meira | sp. | D | ||
Microbotryomycetes | ||||
Hamamotoa | sp. | 1 | D | |
Leucosporidium | sp. | 1 | D | |
Mastigobasidium | intermedium | 1 | D | |
Rhodotorula | bogoriensis | 1 | D | |
Tremellomycetes | ||||
Bullera | alba | 1 | D | |
Cystofilobasidium | macerans | 1 | D | |
Fonsecazyma | betulae | 1 | D | |
Gibellulopsis | nigrescens | 1 | D | |
Papiliotrema | flavescens | 1 | D | |
pseudoalba | 1 | RA | ||
sp. | 1 | D | ||
Saitozyma | podzolica | 2 | D | |
Trichosporon | moniliiforme | 1 | D | |
Vanrija | musci | 1 | D | |
Mortierellomycota | ||||
Incertae sedis | ||||
Mortierella | macrocystis | 1 | D | |
sossauensis | 1 | D | ||
Mortierellales sp. | 1 | D | ||
Mucoromycota | ||||
Incertae sedis | ||||
Mucor | sp. | 1 | D | |
Rhizomucor | variabilis | 1 | D | |
Umbelopsis | ramanniana | 1 | D |
Chemical | Water Solubility | Environmental Levels | Assay Concentrations −L | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |||
Mancozeb | 6–20 mg/L | 1–4 mg/L 1 | 100 µg | 500 µg | 1.5 mg | 4 mg |
Malathion | 130 mg/L | 0.3 to 38 µg/L | 1 µg | 10 µg | 20 µg | 40 µg |
Cypermethrin | 9 µg/L | 6.25 µg/L | 0.5 µg | 1 µg | 3 µg | 6 µg |
Atrazine | 33 µg/mL | 3.7 to 350 ng/L | 3.7 ng | 50 ng | 150 ng | 350 ng |
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Raudabaugh, D.B.; Miller, A.N.; Gunsch, C.K. Evaluation of Pesticides on Detritus-Inhabiting and Root-Associated Fungi in Aquatic Habitats and Potential Implications. Diversity 2024, 16, 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16050255
Raudabaugh DB, Miller AN, Gunsch CK. Evaluation of Pesticides on Detritus-Inhabiting and Root-Associated Fungi in Aquatic Habitats and Potential Implications. Diversity. 2024; 16(5):255. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16050255
Chicago/Turabian StyleRaudabaugh, Daniel B., Andrew N. Miller, and Claudia K. Gunsch. 2024. "Evaluation of Pesticides on Detritus-Inhabiting and Root-Associated Fungi in Aquatic Habitats and Potential Implications" Diversity 16, no. 5: 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16050255