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Volume 27
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10.3390/ijms27010372
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Review

Signaling Molecules and Diagnosis of Cognitive Disorders: Current State and Prospects

by
Igor Kvetnoy
1,2,
Oleg Kheyfets
3,4,
Lazar Safaniev
5,
Vladimir Kheifets
6,
Ekaterina Mironova
1,2,7,*,
Tatiana Kvetnaia
7,
Gianluigi Mazzoccoli
8,
Kiryl Prashchayeu
9 and
Anna Gavrilova
9
1
Medical Institute, Saint-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
2
Saint-Petersburg Research Institute of Phthisiopulmonology, 191036 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
3
University Hospital Wiener Neustadt, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria
4
Department of Medicine, Danube Private University, 3500 Krems an der Donau, Austria
5
Medical Research Company “A-Biomarker”, 125080 Moscow, Russia
6
Almazov National Medical Research Center, 197341 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
7
Saint-Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology, 197110 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
8
Chronobiology Laboratory, Foundation IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, Opera di Padre Pio da Pietrelcina, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
9
Medical Research Center «Gerontology», 129226 Moscow, Russia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(1), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010372 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 12 November 2025 / Revised: 21 December 2025 / Accepted: 22 December 2025 / Published: 29 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Advances in Biomarkers of Central Nervous System Diseases and Disorders)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Cognitive disorders present significant medical and social challenges nowadays, due to their high prevalence, progressive course and a lack of effective methods for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and comorbid pathologies. An important area of research is the identification of molecular biomarkers that reflect early pathophysiological changes and facilitate a more accurate biological characterization of cognitive impairment. This study provides an overview of the most relevant signaling molecules for diagnosing cognitive disorders. It presents data on the effectiveness of using comprehensive panels of molecular biomarkers in clinical practice, including β-amyloid, CD34, claudin, DRP1, endothelin-1, NF-kB, PINK1, RAGE, S100, α-synuclein, and tau protein, in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and vascular dementia (VD). The study results demonstrate that cumulative changes in the expression of signaling molecules reflect various neurodegenerative and vascular-associated biological processes. The data obtained are comparative in nature and require further validation before potential clinical application.
Keywords: Alzheimer’s disease; dementia; biomarkers; differential diagnosis; buccal epithelium Alzheimer’s disease; dementia; biomarkers; differential diagnosis; buccal epithelium

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MDPI and ACS Style

Kvetnoy, I.; Kheyfets, O.; Safaniev, L.; Kheifets, V.; Mironova, E.; Kvetnaia, T.; Mazzoccoli, G.; Prashchayeu, K.; Gavrilova, A. Signaling Molecules and Diagnosis of Cognitive Disorders: Current State and Prospects. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27, 372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010372

AMA Style

Kvetnoy I, Kheyfets O, Safaniev L, Kheifets V, Mironova E, Kvetnaia T, Mazzoccoli G, Prashchayeu K, Gavrilova A. Signaling Molecules and Diagnosis of Cognitive Disorders: Current State and Prospects. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2026; 27(1):372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010372

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kvetnoy, Igor, Oleg Kheyfets, Lazar Safaniev, Vladimir Kheifets, Ekaterina Mironova, Tatiana Kvetnaia, Gianluigi Mazzoccoli, Kiryl Prashchayeu, and Anna Gavrilova. 2026. "Signaling Molecules and Diagnosis of Cognitive Disorders: Current State and Prospects" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 27, no. 1: 372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010372

APA Style

Kvetnoy, I., Kheyfets, O., Safaniev, L., Kheifets, V., Mironova, E., Kvetnaia, T., Mazzoccoli, G., Prashchayeu, K., & Gavrilova, A. (2026). Signaling Molecules and Diagnosis of Cognitive Disorders: Current State and Prospects. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 27(1), 372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010372

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