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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

The Double Life of Plant-Based Food Waste: A Source of Phenolic Acids and a Carrier for Immobilization of Lipases Capable of Their Lipophilization

by
Karina Jasińska
1,*,
Bartłomiej Zieniuk
1,
Marcin Bryła
2,
Daria Padewska
2,
Rita Brzezińska
1,
Bartosz Kruszewski
3,
Dorota Nowak
4 and
Agata Fabiszewska
1,*
1
Department of Chemistry, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), 159c Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
2
Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland
3
Department of Food Technology and Assessment, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), Nowoursynowska 159 C, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
4
Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), 159c Nowoursynowska Street, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(23), 11400; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262311400
Submission received: 31 October 2025 / Revised: 20 November 2025 / Accepted: 21 November 2025 / Published: 25 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Bioactives and Nutraceuticals)
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Abstract

Addressing global food waste challenges, this study investigated plant-based byproducts, spent coffee grounds, apple, and chokeberry pomaces, as sources of phenolic acids and biodegradable carriers for lipase immobilization. The goal was to enhance the lipophilicity and functionality of natural phenolics by enzymatic lipophilization. Microbial lipase from A. oryzae was immobilized on these materials, with native spent coffee grounds (NSCG) showing the highest activity (6.0 U/g hydrolytic; 1036 U/g synthetic). Chlorogenic acid (CGA), predominant in extracts, served as a model substrate. Using response-surface methodology, optimal conditions for butyl-CGA synthesis were determined. This is the first report of CGA lipophilization using food-waste-immobilized biocatalysts, where reaction yield for NSCG increased with alcohol chain length, peaking with dodecanol (34.06%). Among synthesized esters, butyl chlorogenate displayed the highest antioxidant activity, comparable to free CGA and BHT, and increased lipophilicity, though a “cut-off” effect appeared for longer chains. Medium-chain esters (C6, C8) showed selective antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. While lipophilization of chokeberry pomace and spent coffee grounds extracts reduced antioxidant activity, short-chain esters (C4–C6) improved rapeseed oil stability. The findings highlight food waste as a sustainable source for developing biocatalysts and value-added bioactives with enhanced functional properties.
Keywords: food waste; lipase immobilization; chlorogenic acid; enzymatic lipophilization; bioactive compounds food waste; lipase immobilization; chlorogenic acid; enzymatic lipophilization; bioactive compounds
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MDPI and ACS Style

Jasińska, K.; Zieniuk, B.; Bryła, M.; Padewska, D.; Brzezińska, R.; Kruszewski, B.; Nowak, D.; Fabiszewska, A. The Double Life of Plant-Based Food Waste: A Source of Phenolic Acids and a Carrier for Immobilization of Lipases Capable of Their Lipophilization. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26, 11400. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262311400

AMA Style

Jasińska K, Zieniuk B, Bryła M, Padewska D, Brzezińska R, Kruszewski B, Nowak D, Fabiszewska A. The Double Life of Plant-Based Food Waste: A Source of Phenolic Acids and a Carrier for Immobilization of Lipases Capable of Their Lipophilization. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2025; 26(23):11400. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262311400

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jasińska, Karina, Bartłomiej Zieniuk, Marcin Bryła, Daria Padewska, Rita Brzezińska, Bartosz Kruszewski, Dorota Nowak, and Agata Fabiszewska. 2025. "The Double Life of Plant-Based Food Waste: A Source of Phenolic Acids and a Carrier for Immobilization of Lipases Capable of Their Lipophilization" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 26, no. 23: 11400. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262311400

APA Style

Jasińska, K., Zieniuk, B., Bryła, M., Padewska, D., Brzezińska, R., Kruszewski, B., Nowak, D., & Fabiszewska, A. (2025). The Double Life of Plant-Based Food Waste: A Source of Phenolic Acids and a Carrier for Immobilization of Lipases Capable of Their Lipophilization. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(23), 11400. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262311400

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