The Influence of Pedo-Climatic Conditions on the Micromorphological, Phytochemical Features, and Biological Properties of Leaves of Saponaria sicula Raf
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Soil Features
2.2. Micromorphological Characterisation
2.3. Stomatal Index and Density
2.4. Phytochemical Analyses
2.5. Biological Activity
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Chemicals
4.2. Plant Material
4.3. Light and Scanning Electron Microscopy
4.4. Sample Extraction
4.5. Phytochemical Screening
4.5.1. Total Phenols
4.5.2. Total Flavonoids
4.5.3. Vanillin Index
4.5.4. Proanthocyanidins
4.6. Phytochemical Characterisation by LC-DAD-ESI-MS Analysis
4.7. Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activity
4.7.1. TEAC Assay
4.7.2. FRAP Assay
4.7.3. DPPH Assay
4.7.4. ORAC
4.7.5. ICA Assay
4.7.6. BCB Assay
4.7.7. Protease Assay
4.7.8. ADA Assay
4.8. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soil Features | Madonie | Etna |
---|---|---|
Sand % | 79.9 | 94.6 |
Silt % | 19.0 | 1.3 |
Clay % | 1.1 | 4.1 |
pH | 8.3 | 7.5 |
Total N (g/kg) | 1.03 | 0.75 |
CaCO3 g/kg | 916.8 | 4.5 |
O.M. a (g/100) | 2.4 | 0.9 |
C/N | 13.6 | 7.1 |
Cond. b (1:5 mS/cm) | 0.07 | 0.05 |
C.E.C c (meq/100 g) | 6.9 | 4.9 |
Ca d (mg/kg) | 860.0 | 50.0 |
Mg d (mg/kg) | 135.6 | 8.4 |
K d (mg/kg) | 54.7 | 74.3 |
SsM | SsE | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Abaxial | Adaxial | Abaxial | Adaxial | |
Stomatal Index (%) | 25 ± 2 | 26 ± 3 | 24 ± 2 | 29 ± 5 |
Stomatal Density (stomata/mm2) | 102 ± 9 a,c | 140 ± 22 d | 171 ± 43 b | 208 ± 59 |
Phytochemical Assays | SsM | SsE |
---|---|---|
Total phenols (g GAE a/100 g DE b) | 8.56 ± 0.57 g | 6.54 ± 0.16 |
Flavonoids (g RE c/100 g DE) | 6.09 ± 0.17 g | 5.31 ± 0.32 |
Vanillin index (g CE d/100 g DE) | 0.60 ± 0.02 g | 0.28 ± 0.08 |
Proanthocyanidins (g CyE e/100 g DE) | 0.04 ± 0.06 | 0.05 ± 0.08 |
Polymerisation index f | 15.00 | 5.60 |
Compound | RT a | λmax (nm) | [M-H]− | [M-H]+ | SsM | SsE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area% | ||||||
p-Coumaroyl glucose d | 7.4 | 322 | - | 327 | 1.59 ± 0.06 b | 3.30 ± 0.15 |
Acetylglycitin d | 11.2 | 264, 324 | - | 489 | 0.57 ± 0.02 b | 0.82 ± 0.04 |
Eriodictyol-O-glucoside c | 13.3 | 289, 328 | - | 451 | 0.58 ± 0.02 | 0.55 ± 0.03 |
Dihydroxy-dimethoxy-methylenedioxyflavone-O-glucuronide | 15.1 | 247, 274, 315, 342 | 533 | - | 0.07 ± 0.00 b | 0.61 ± 0.02 |
Feruloylquinic acid d | 17.3 | 290, 322 | - | 369 | - | 0.54 ± 0.03 |
Tricosylresorcinol | 18.9 | 273 | - | 433 | 2.64 ± 0.08 b | 0.56 ± 0.03 |
Delphinidin-O-(acetyl-glycoside) d | 19.6 | 245, 529 | 506 | - | 0.06 ± 0.00 | - |
Valoneic acid dilactone | 20.2 | 256, 305, 347, 362 | 468 | - | 0.93 ± 0.04 b | 0.66 ± 0.02 |
Ellagic acid arabinoside d | 20.4 | 254, 360 | 433 | - | 0.10 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.00 |
Apigenin-O-glucuronide d | 21.3 | 267, 336 | - | 447 | - | 0.99 ± 0.03 |
Luteolin-O-malonyl-glucoside d | 21.4 | 255, 267, 348 | 533 | - | 0.10 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.00 |
(-)-Epigallocatechin c | 21.5 | 240, 274 | - | 307 | 1.47 ± 0.03 | - |
Geranylnaringenin d | 22.6 | 289, 326 | - | 409 | 1.02 ± 0.02 b | 0.66 ± 0.01 |
Methylepigallocatechin-O-gallate d | 22.7 | 232, 274 | - | 473 | 0.69 ± 0.03 | 0.70 ± 0.02 |
Pallidol | 24.1 | 203, 230, 324 | 453 | - | 0.06 ± 0.00 | - |
(+)-Catechin-O-glucose d | 25.0 | 238, 269 | - | 453 | 1.63 ± 0.05 b | 1.10 ± 0.08 |
Kaempferol-O-(acetyl-galactoside)-O-rhamnoside d | 25.7 | 245, 265, 315, 350 | 635 | - | 0.06 ± 0.00 | 0.06 ± 0.00 |
Apigenin-O-diglucuronide d | 25.8 | 267, 336 | - | 623 | 1.02 ± 0.02 | 0.96 ± 0.03 |
Methyl-(-)-epicatechin-O-glucuronide d | 27.1 | 240, 274 | - | 481 | 1.89 ± 0.03 b | 1.32 ± 0.04 |
Ligstroside | 29.0 | 235, 275 | - | 525 | 2.28 ± 0.08 b | 1.52 ± 0.05 |
Phloretin-O-xylosyl-glucoside d | 30.2 | 242, 289 | - | 541 | 2.53 ± 0.12 | - |
Apigenin-O-(malonyl-apiosyl-glucoside) d | 30.5 | 268, 333 | - | 651 | - | 2.80 ± 0.10 |
Hydroxyphloretin-O-xylosyl-glucoside d | 30.9 | 242, 289 | - | 585 | 2.44 ± 0.08 b | 2.80 ± 0.12 |
Quercetin-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-2)-beta-D-glucopyranoside-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranoside d | 31.0 | 258, 272, 303, 365 | 755 | - | 0.11 ± 0.00 | 0.12 ± 0.01 |
Hydroxyphloretin-O-glucoside d | 31.4 | 242, 289 | - | 585 | 3.58 ± 0.15 b | 3.07 ± 0.18 |
Kaempferol-O-glucosyl-rhamnosyl-glicoside d | 31.6 | 253, 265, 325, 364 | 755 | - | 0.11 ± 0.00 | 0.10 ± 0.00 |
Patuletin-gentiobioside | 32.2 | 261, 270, 355 | - | 657 | 1.75 ± 0.11 b | 1.34 ± 0.08 |
Prodelphinidin dimer B3 | 32.6 | 228, 276, 320 | 609 | - | 0.30 ± 0.02 b | 0.42 ± 0.02 |
Isorhamnetin-O-glicoside c | 32.7 | 255, 268, 303, 357 | - | 479 | 2.03 ± 0.05 | 2.07 ± 0.08 |
Saponarin | 33.6 | 271, 336 | 593 | - | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 0.09 ± 0.00 |
Kaempferol-O-xylosyl-glucoside d | 33.7 | 253, 266, 323, 364 | - | 581 | 1.90 ± 0.08 b | 3.47 ± 0.14 |
Quercetin-O-diglucoside d | 33.9 | 256, 362 | 625 | - | - | 0.09 ± 0.00 |
Isorhamnetin-O-glucoside-O-rhamnoside d | 34.4 | 254, 265, 305, 356 | - | 625 | 3.56 ± 0.15 b | 0.47 ± 0.02 |
Isorhamnetin-O-glicoside c | 34.8 | 255, 268, 303, 357 | - | 479 | - | 1.96 ± 0.07 |
Propelargonidin dimer | 36.0 | 245, 280 | - | 563 | 10.49 ± 0.35 | 10.19 ± 0.22 |
Hydroxyphloretin-O-xylosyl-glucoside d | 36.8 | 242, 289 | - | 585 | 0.06 ± 0.00 | - |
Sinapoyl-feruloylgentiobiose | 38.6 | 282 | 723 | - | 6.54 ± 0.25 b | 7.43 ± 0.36 |
Diosmin c | 40.3 | 260, 350 | - | 609 | 2.24 ± 0.11 | 2.16 ±0.08 |
Luteolin-O-diglucuronide d | 40.4 | 245, 253, 267, 292, 348 | 637 | - | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.09 ± 0.00 |
Saponarioside K | 41.2 | - | 988 | - | 0.12 ± 0.01 b | 0.17 ± 0.01 |
Sinapoyl-diferuloylgentiobiose | 42.7 | 282 | - | 901 | 1.40 ± 0.10 | - |
Kaempferol-O-feruloyl-sophoroside d | 43.4 | 245, 265, 317, 350 | - | 787 | 3.51 ± 0.15 | 3.83 ± 0.22 |
Saponarioside J | 44.4 | - | - | 1104 | 2.41 ± 0.08 b | 1.67 ± 0.05 |
Petunidin c | 45.8 | 279, 524 | - | 318 | 5.52 ± 0.22 b | 3.91 ± 0.17 |
Peonidin-p-hydroxybenzoylsophoroside-glucoside d | 46.4 | 275, 500 | 906 | - | 0.09 ± 0.00 b | 2.94 ± 0.12 |
Pelargonidin-diglucoside- (malonyl)-glucoside d | 46.8 | 267, 500 | 842 | - | 0.10 ± 0.00 b | 0.77 ± 0.02 |
Phloretin c | 47.1 | 242, 289 | - | 275 | 3.52 ± 0.21 | 3.77 ± 0.18 |
Saponarioside H | 47.4 | - | 779 | - | 0.09 ± 0.00 b | 2.47 ± 0.12 |
Dihydromyricetin-O-rhamnoside d | 48.1 | 254, 274, 303, 374 | - | 467 | 2.08 ± 0.12 b | 1.60 ± 0.08 |
Saponarioside I | 48.2 | - | 1282 | - | - | 0.09 ± 0.00 |
Disinapoyl-feruloylgentiobiose | 48.8 | 238, 289, 320 | 929 | - | 0.09 ± 0.00 | 0.08 ± 0.00 |
Quercetin-di-glucoside-(caffeoylglucoside) d | 49.7 | 257, 271, 301, 362 | 949 | - | 0.09 ± 0.00 b | 1.89 ± 0.08 |
Caffeoyl glucose d | 50.6 | 290, 305, 328 | 342 | - | 5.60 ± 0.23 b | 4.33 ± 0.16 |
Dihydrocaffeic acid-O-glucuronide d | 51.4 | 240, 300, 324 | 357 | - | - | 0.20 ± 0.01 |
Tigloylgomicin H | 52.8 | 230, 280 | - | 501 | - | 1.53 ± 0.06 |
Coumaroylquinic acid d | 53.8 | 280, 308, 320 | 337 | - | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 0.13 ± 0.01 |
Resveratrol-O-glucoside d | 55.0 | 289 | 389 | - | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 0.10 ± 0.01 |
Methylepicatechin d | 55.9 | 238, 274 | - | 305 | 2.55 ± 0.13 b | 1.88 ± 0.06 |
Phloridzin c | 58.2 | 230, 285 | - | 437 | - | 1.62 ± 0.04 |
Quercetin-sulfate d | 61.6 | 255, 270, 303, 370 | - | 383 | 3.35 ± 0.21 b | 2.28 ± 0.16 |
Hydroxymatairesinol | 63.2 | 230, 280 | - | 375 | 4.81 ± 0.24 b | 3.38 ± 0.17 |
Baicalin c | 64.2 | 244, 278, 315 | - | 447 | 4.45 ± 0.28 b | 3.44 ± 0.15 |
Lariciresinol-sesquilignan | 72.9 | 230, 280 | - | 557 | 5.47 ± 0.28 b | 4.72 ± 0.14 |
Assay | SsM | SsE | RS c |
---|---|---|---|
Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) | 99.75 a,b (77.29–128.73) | 191.07 b (143.65–254.15) | 4.03 (1.72–9.45) |
Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) | 165.72 a,b (137.31–199.99) | 254.90 b (207.04–313.84) | 3.69 (1.61–8.45) |
2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) | 477.30 b (373.40–610.12) | 478.92 b (372.95–614.99) | 10.38 (8.82–12.22) |
Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) | 2.75 b (2.22–3.42) | 4.04 b (3.36–4.85) | 0.67 (0.32–0.88) |
Iron-chelating activity (ICA) | 129.77 b (104.57–161.04) | 144.24 b (112.47–184.99) | 5.51 (2.46–12.32) |
β-arotene bleaching (BCB) | 180.96 a,b (147.51–221.98) | 282.57 b (229.77–363.32) | 0.32 (0.15–0.55) |
Albumin denaturation assay (ADA) | 195.60 a,b (154.03–248.40) | 390.22 b (299.15–509.03) | 11.16 (9.25–13.46) |
Protease inhibitory activity | 43.48 b (34.99–54.04) | 61.53 b (51.07–74.14) | 18.97 (14.33–25.11) |
Population | Collection Site | Coordinates | Altitude | Exposure | Substrate | SAF Code |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Madonie | Quacella | 37°50′48.61′′ N 14°0′55.02′′ E | 1350 | W | carbonate | 100081 |
Etna Mt | Piano Provenzana | 37°47′56.53′′ N 15°02′44.88′′ E | 1800 | S | volcanic | 100082 |
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Cornara, L.; Malaspina, P.; Betuzzi, F.; Di Gristina, E.; D’Arrigo, M.; Ingegneri, M.; Trombetta, D.; Smeriglio, A. The Influence of Pedo-Climatic Conditions on the Micromorphological, Phytochemical Features, and Biological Properties of Leaves of Saponaria sicula Raf. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 11693. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241411693
Cornara L, Malaspina P, Betuzzi F, Di Gristina E, D’Arrigo M, Ingegneri M, Trombetta D, Smeriglio A. The Influence of Pedo-Climatic Conditions on the Micromorphological, Phytochemical Features, and Biological Properties of Leaves of Saponaria sicula Raf. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(14):11693. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241411693
Chicago/Turabian StyleCornara, Laura, Paola Malaspina, Federica Betuzzi, Emilio Di Gristina, Manuela D’Arrigo, Mariarosaria Ingegneri, Domenico Trombetta, and Antonella Smeriglio. 2023. "The Influence of Pedo-Climatic Conditions on the Micromorphological, Phytochemical Features, and Biological Properties of Leaves of Saponaria sicula Raf" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 14: 11693. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241411693