Pathophysiology and Current Drug Treatments for Post-Stroke Depression: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Association between PSD and Post-Stroke Anxiety
2.1. Rehabilitation Services for PSD and PSA
2.2. Diagnostics for PSD and PSA
2.3. Risk Factors
3. Association between PSD and Post-Stroke Motor Activity
4. Pathogenesis of PSD
4.1. The Role of the Monoamine System
4.2. The Role of the Glutamatergic System
4.3. The Role of Excitotoxicity
4.4. The Role of the Gut-Brain Axis
4.5. The Role of Neuroinflammation
4.6. The Role of Abnormal Neutrophilic Response
4.7. The Role of HLA Dysregulation
4.8. Other Molecular Mechanisms
5. Current Drug Research
5.1. Research on Drugs That Are Based on Monoamine Theory
5.1.1. SSRIs
5.1.2. SNRIs
5.1.3. Norepinephrine-Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors (NDRIs)
5.1.4. Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)
5.1.5. Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
Author | Number of Studies | Study Design | Study Approach | Results | Conclusion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sun et al. 2017 [77] | 12 suitable trials, with data from 707 participants | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | SSRIs | The results established that the acceptability scores for doxepin, citalopram, and fluoxetine were higher than paroxetine. | Paroxetine was the preferred drug at the onset of acute treatment for PSD, and fluoxetine was the least ideal choice. |
Li and Zhang 2020 [78] | Data from 51 RCTs | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | SSRIs, TCAs, mirtazapine | The results showed that escitalopram was the most favorable, while amitriptyline scored the lowest at two weeks. Citalopram was more effective than the other SSRIs at four weeks, while mirtazapine had the highest response rate among patients after eight weeks. | Escitalopram was associated with a quicker relief of depression, but mirtazapine was probably the best option for an 8-week treatment duration. |
Zhou et al. 2020 [73] | Data of 10 RCTs with a total of 5370 patients | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | SSRIs | The results showed that SSRI therapy was most effective in preventing PSD when used in the initial stages of the condition. | Early SSRIs therapy was effective in preventing post-stroke depression. However, SSRIs did not improve patients’ post-stroke functional independence. SSRIs were relatively safe. |
Zhang et al. 2013 [85] | 95 patients | RCT | SNRI: Duloxetine | Duloxetine helps stroke patients prevent minor and major depression and also helps them rehabilitate rapidly from a stroke. | Prophylactic use also reduced the incidence of PSD and improved individuals’ quality of life and cognitive function. |
Cravello et al. 2009 [86] | 50 patients | RCT | SNRI: Venlafaxine | The results showed that the patients had more significant improvement in alexithymia than those treated with fluoxetine. | Antidepressants such as SNRIs were effective in treating depression and improving emotional awareness in PSD patients. |
Tsai et al. 2011 [87] | 92 patients | RCT | SNRI: Milnacipran | The results showed that milnacipran had a significant advantage in preventing PSD without substantial adverse effects. | Preventive use antidepressants such as SNRI (milnacipran) reduced incidences of PSD. |
Patel et al. 2016 [92] | Data from 51 RCTs | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | Bupropion | The results showed that bupropion was effective and highly tolerated. Patients using it had low rates of side effects. | The researchers concluded that bupropion since it had equivalent effectiveness to other antidepressants. |
Liu et al. 2015 [93] | Data from 9 RCTs and 1,106 patients | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | SNRIs: Fluoxetine Bupropion | The results showed no difference in effectiveness between bupropion and other antidepressants such as fluoxetine. | Bupropion hydrochloride sustained-release tablets have the same effectiveness and side effects as fluoxetine tablets in the treatment of depression. |
Qin et al. 2018 [101] | Data from 14 RCTs included 949 patients | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | MAOs SSRIs TCAs | The results showed insufficient evidence that MAOIs were more effective and tolerant than placebo and other antidepressants such as SSRIs. | MAOIs are less effective than SSRIs. |
Deng et al. 2017 [103] | Data from 23 RCTs included 1542 patients | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | NDRIs SSSIs TCAs | The results showed that TCAs are among the best approaches to managing post-stroke depression, just such as SSRIs and SNRIs. | NDRIs, SSRIs, and TCAs are associated with a considerably higher depression score reduction compared with the control groups. |
Tan et al. 2015 [104] | Data from 48 RCTs included 3294 patients | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | SSRIs TCAs | The results showed that TCAs had a higher efficacy index than citalopram as per the scores on the Hamilton Depression Scale. | They concluded that TCAs were more efficient than citalopram in treating PSD. |
Arroll et al. 2005 [105] | Data from 12 RCTs included 2753 patients | Multiple treatments meta-analysis of RCTs | SSRIs TCAs | The results showed that when compared with a placebo, efficacy estimates showed that patients using TCAs had a relative improvement risk. | The researchers concluded that it was more effective to prescribe TCAs in primary care than a placebo. |
5.2. Glutamate-Based Antidepressants
5.2.1. NMDA Blockers
Ketamine
Memantine
Magnesium
D-cycloserine (DCS)
5.2.2. AMPA Antagonists
5.2.3. Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors
Drug Research on Group I mGluR in Depression
Drug Research on Group II mGluR in Depression
Drug Research on Group III mGluR in Depression
5.3. Blood Glutamate Scavengers
5.3.1. Pyruvate
5.3.2. Oxaloacetate
5.4. Microbiota Treatment in PSD
5.5. Anti-Inflammatory Treatments in PSD
5.6. Other Drugs
5.6.1. Mirtazapine
5.6.2. Agomelatine (AGM)
5.6.3. Psychostimulants
5.6.4. Nootropic Drugs
5.6.5. The Contribution of Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) Inhibitors in Depression and Ischemic Brain Injury
The Link between COX-2 and mGluR7 in Depression and Cognition
6. Results of Non-Pharmacological Treatments
6.1. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
6.2. Electroconvulsive Therapy
6.3. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS)
6.4. Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)
6.5. Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS)
7. Future Research in Drug Therapy of PSD
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Antidepressants | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
SSRIs | GAD, fibromyalgia | Sexual dysfunction, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, serotonin syndrome, HTN |
SNRIs | GAD, fibromyalgia | Sexual side effects, insomnia, nausea, vomiting, HTN, serotonin syndrome |
NDRIs | Alcohol, smoking cessation, no sexual dysfunction, no weight gain | Anxiety, suicidal ideation, seizures, general side effects |
MAOIs | Effectiveness for atypical depression, PTSD | Low sex drive, weight gain, high or low blood pressure, keep off during alcoholism, kidney and heart disease, food restriction |
TCA | Proven efficacy, low cost | Urinary retention, xerostomia, tachycardia, VF, SCD |
Ketamine | Severe, treatment-resistant depression, increasing libido | Numbness, tingling, dizziness, transient cognitive deficits, and increasing blood pressure |
Memantine | Moderate and severe form depression, highly tolerated by many patients, improving cognition and general quality of life | Constipation, nausea, weight gain, diarrhea, confusion, sleeplessness, shortness of breath, and hallucination |
D-cycloserine | Well tolerated, do not produce psychotomimetic effects | Dizziness, hyperexcitability, anxiety, memory loss, and gastrointestinal problems |
Magnesium | Anxiety, anticonvulsive effect | Muscle weakness, lethargy, nausea, diarrhea, and a fall in blood pressure |
Riluzole | Anticonvulsive effect | Fatigue, nausea, and weight loss |
Mirtazapine | Can be used as a preventive treatment for PSD | Increased appetite, weight gain, headache, nausea or vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation |
Agomelatine | Short-term and long-term efficacy in treating PSD | Hepatic impairment, anxiety, nausea and vomiting, stomach pain, insomnia, dizziness, fatigue, and an increase in weight |
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Frank, D.; Gruenbaum, B.F.; Zlotnik, A.; Semyonov, M.; Frenkel, A.; Boyko, M. Pathophysiology and Current Drug Treatments for Post-Stroke Depression: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 15114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232315114
Frank D, Gruenbaum BF, Zlotnik A, Semyonov M, Frenkel A, Boyko M. Pathophysiology and Current Drug Treatments for Post-Stroke Depression: A Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(23):15114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232315114
Chicago/Turabian StyleFrank, Dmitry, Benjamin F. Gruenbaum, Alexander Zlotnik, Michael Semyonov, Amit Frenkel, and Matthew Boyko. 2022. "Pathophysiology and Current Drug Treatments for Post-Stroke Depression: A Review" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 23: 15114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232315114