Next Article in Journal
Neuroprotective Effect of Valproic Acid on Salicylate-Induced Tinnitus
Next Article in Special Issue
Genome-Wide Association Analysis and Genomic Prediction of Thyroglobulin Plasma Levels
Previous Article in Journal
A Comparison between Enrichment Optimization Algorithm (EOA)-Based and Docking-Based Virtual Screening
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJMS
Volume 23
Issue 1
10.3390/ijms23010044
ijms-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Environmental Factors That Affect Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin Levels

by
Mirjana Babić Leko
,
Nikolina Pleić
,
Ivana Gunjača
and
Tatijana Zemunik
*
Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Split, Šoltanska 2, 21000 Split, Croatia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(1), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010044
Submission received: 15 November 2021 / Revised: 17 December 2021 / Accepted: 19 December 2021 / Published: 21 December 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thyroid Cell 2.0)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Calciotropic hormones, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin are involved in the regulation of bone mineral metabolism and maintenance of calcium and phosphate homeostasis in the body. Therefore, an understanding of environmental and genetic factors influencing PTH and calcitonin levels is crucial. Genetic factors are estimated to account for 60% of variations in PTH levels, while the genetic background of interindividual calcitonin variations has not yet been studied. In this review, we analyzed the literature discussing the influence of environmental factors (lifestyle factors and pollutants) on PTH and calcitonin levels. Among lifestyle factors, smoking, body mass index (BMI), diet, alcohol, and exercise were analyzed; among pollutants, heavy metals and chemicals were analyzed. Lifestyle factors that showed the clearest association with PTH levels were smoking, BMI, exercise, and micronutrients taken from the diet (vitamin D and calcium). Smoking, vitamin D, and calcium intake led to a decrease in PTH levels, while higher BMI and exercise led to an increase in PTH levels. In terms of pollutants, exposure to cadmium led to a decrease in PTH levels, while exposure to lead increased PTH levels. Several studies have investigated the effect of chemicals on PTH levels in humans. Compared to PTH studies, a smaller number of studies analyzed the influence of environmental factors on calcitonin levels, which gives great variability in results. Only a few studies have analyzed the influence of pollutants on calcitonin levels in humans. The lifestyle factor with the clearest relationship with calcitonin was smoking (smokers had increased calcitonin levels). Given the importance of PTH and calcitonin in maintaining calcium and phosphate homeostasis and bone mineral metabolism, additional studies on the influence of environmental factors that could affect PTH and calcitonin levels are crucial.

1. Introduction

Maintenance of calcium homeostasis in the body is crucial since calcium regulates various physiological processes, including cellular signaling, protein and enzyme function, neurotransmission, contractility of the muscles, and blood coagulation [1]. Calcium homeostasis is regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, the active form of vitamin D (1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D3)), and serum calcium and phosphate levels. Regulation of phosphate metabolism is also important as phosphate is involved in protein and enzyme function, cell signaling, and skeletal mineralization and is a component of cell membranes and nucleic acids [2,3]. The main factors that regulate phosphate homeostasis are PTH, fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), 1,25(OH)2D3, and Klotho [3]. Calcitonin is also involved in the regulation of phosphate levels [4,5]. PTH is released from the parathyroid glands [6], while calcitonin is released from thyroid C-cells [7]. Alternation of PTH levels can lead to the development of hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism. Changes in calcitonin levels have also been observed in pathological conditions (such as medullary thyroid carcinoma [8]). Therefore, variations in PTH and calcitonin levels may indicate that the normal functioning of parathyroid glands and thyroid is altered. Various factors can affect PTH and calcitonin levels, such as genetic factors [9,10,11], demographic factors (age [12,13,14], sex [15,16,17]), and environmental factors [18,19,20,21]. It is estimated that genetic factors account for 60% of variations in PTH levels [9], while the amount to which genetic factors contribute to interindividual variation in calcitonin levels has not been studied. This review aims to provide an insight into environmental factors (lifestyle factors and pollutants) that affect PTH and calcitonin levels (Figure 1).

2. Involvement of PTH and Calcitonin in the Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Levels

Calcium and phosphate levels in the body are regulated by the complex intestine–bone–kidney–parathyroid axis [22]. Calcium homeostasis is regulated by PTH, calcitonin, 1,25(OH)2D3, and serum phosphate and calcium levels. PTH increases calcium levels in the body, and calcitonin decreases calcium levels in the body. PTH increases serum calcium levels by activating osteoclasts (cells involved in bone resorption) and absorbing calcium in the kidneys. Calcitonin lowers calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts [23]. Additionally, 1,25(OH)2D3 stimulates intestinal calcium absorption [24]. Increasing serum levels of 1,25(OH)2D3 and calcium decrease PTH secretion, while increasing serum phosphate levels increase PTH secretion [25]. In addition to PTH, phosphate levels are mainly regulated by FGF-23, 1,25(OH)2D3, Klotho, and dietary phosphate [3,22,26,27], while calcitonin also affects phosphate levels [4,5]. PTH, FGF-23, and Klotho decrease serum phosphate levels (by inhibiting renal phosphate reabsorption), while 1,25(OH)2D3 increases serum phosphate levels (by increasing renal phosphate reabsorption, phosphate absorption from the intestine, and phosphate release from the bones) [2,22]. It has been suggested that FGF-23 acts in a negative feedback loop with PTH [28]; PTH stimulates FGF-23 production [28], while FGF-23 has been shown to inhibit PTH secretion indirectly (by increasing urinary phosphate excretion) and directly (by acting directly on parathyroid glands) [29]. Additionally, a negative feedback mechanism was observed between FGF-23 and 1,25(OH)2D3; 1,25(OH)2D3 increases FGF-23 levels, and FGF-23 decreases 1,25(OH)2D3 levels (by suppressing the expression of 1α-hydroxylase—the enzyme responsible for the production of 1,25(OH)2D3) (reviewed in [22]).

3. Environmental Factors That Affect PTH and Calcitonin Levels

3.1. Lifestyle Factors

3.1.1. Smoking

Many studies have investigated the impact of smoking on PTH levels. Most of these studies reported a decrease in PTH levels in smokers (Table 1). The three largest studies that involved more than 7000 participants confirmed these results [30,31,32]. The study of Diaz-Gomez et al., even showed that maternal smoking decreases PTH levels in newborns [33]. The heavy metal cadmium and thiocyanate (that is converted from cyanide in tobacco) which are also toxic components of tobacco smoke have been shown to reduce PTH levels [19,34]. Jorde et al., observed that after smoking cessation, PTH levels return to normal [30]. The mechanism by which smoking affects PTH levels is not fully understood. PTH–vitamin D axis dysfunction has been observed in smokers [35]. Many studies have found a decrease in 1,25(OH)2D levels among smokers (reviewed in [36]). Although under physiological conditions, a decrease in 1,25(OH)2D levels was accompanied by an increase in PTH levels, this was not observed in smokers in most studies. Need et al., suggested that smoking impairs osteoblast function, increasing serum calcium, which in turn leads to a decrease in PTH levels [37]. Jorde et al. did not rule out a possible direct toxic effect of smoking on parathyroid cells [30]. Additionally, it has been suggested that a decrease in bone mineral density (BMD) among smokers [38] may contribute to PTH–vitamin D axis dysfunction [35].
Most studies investigating the effect of smoking on calcitonin levels have found an increase in calcitonin levels in smokers (Table 2). A large population study by Song et al., involving 10,566 participants showed an increase in calcitonin levels in male smokers [17]. Smoking affects the normal functioning of the thyroid gland [39]; however, the effect of smoking on calcitonin-producing C cells has not been elucidated [17]. The results of Tabassian et al. suggested that the lungs are the source of increased calcitonin in smokers rather than the thyroid. Specifically, smoking increases the release of calcitonin from neuroendocrine lung cells [40].

3.1.2. Body Mass Index

Many studies have investigated the influence of body mass index (BMI) on PTH levels. Most studies have shown that an increase in BMI is accompanied by an increase in PTH levels (Table 1). However, a study by Yuan et al., showed a positive correlation between BMI and PTH levels in subjects with lower PTH levels (below 65.8 pg/mL), while a negative correlation was observed between BMI and PTH levels in the group of patients with high PTH levels (above 147 pg/mL) [41]. There are several possible explanations for the positive correlation between BMI and PTH levels. The first possibility is that weight gain leads to an increase in PTH levels by sequestration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) in adipose tissue (since 25(OH)D is soluble in fat) [42,43]. Because PTH and 25(OH)D are inversely related, a decrease in 25(OH)D levels increases PTH levels. Another possibility is that an increase in PTH levels causes weight gain. Because PTH can activate 1α-hydroxylase (the enzyme responsible for the production of 1,25(OH)2D), an increase in PTH levels can lead to an increase in 1,25(OH)2D levels. Both PTH and 1,25(OH)2D increase calcium levels. Increased calcium levels in adipocytes result in increased lipid storage (by activation of phosphodiesterase 3β which reduces catecholamine-induced lipolysis [44,45]). A possible explanation of the negative correlation between PTH and BMI in patients with high PTH levels is that PTH in higher concentrations inhibits adipogenesis, consequently resulting in weight loss [46]. Additionally, high-dose PTH has been shown to increase the expression of thermogenesis genes, resulting in white adipose browning [47].
Several studies have investigated the association between BMI and calcitonin levels, reporting conflicting results (Table 2). The largest study, which included 9340 people with type 2 diabetes, showed a positive correlation between BMI and calcitonin levels [48]. However, a study by Song et al., conducted on 4638 healthy individuals did not show an association between BMI and calcitonin [17]. Although the relationship between calcitonin levels and BMI in humans has not been fully elucidated, experimental studies have shown that salmon calcitonin intake causes weight loss (reviewed in [49]). These authors also described some additional compounds that target the calcitonin receptor and that could be used as an option in the treatment of obesity [49].

3.1.3. Diet

Different types of food can affect the level of PTH in the body (Table 1). A diet high in phosphorus and low in calcium has been shown to increase PTH levels [50,51]. This is logical because both high serum phosphate levels and low serum calcium levels are signals to increase PTH release [52]. Phosphorus is present in various types of food and food additives, while dairy products contain a large amount of calcium. Increased intake of dairy products and decreased intake of highly processed food should increase calcium levels and reduce phosphorus levels [51]. Processed foods such as sausages, salami, and white bread [21] and a proinflammatory diet (processed and red meat, refined carbohydrates, and fried food) [53] have been observed to increase PTH levels. Consumption of this type of food increases BMI, which is positively correlated with PTH levels (Table 1). A decrease in PTH levels was observed in consumers of bran bread [21]. A low–protein diet was associated with an increase in PTH levels [54,55,56]. Interestingly, the consumption of plant foods also led to an increase in PTH levels [21,57]. Therefore, vegans [58] and vegetarians [59] had higher levels of PTH than controls. A possible explanation for this is that higher plant food intake increases serum phosphorus levels (due to pesticide treatment of plants) [60]. PTH levels either decreased [30,61] or did not change [32,62,63] after coffee consumption.
The effect of different types of food on calcitonin levels has not been studied to date. Several studies have shown that food intake (without specifying the type of food) does not affect calcitonin levels [64,65]. Zayed et al., have shown that calcitonin levels increase after ingestion of food (without specifying the type of food) [66]. A study in pigs showed that a diet high in phosphorus increased calcitonin levels [67], while a study in rats showed that a diet high in fat increased calcitonin levels [68].

Micronutrients

Many studies have tested the effect of vitamin D on PTH levels because these two hormones act together. About 95% of vitamin D is synthesized in the skin after exposure to sunlight, while 5% of vitamin D comes from food [69]. Since PTH and the active form of vitamin D (1,25(OH)2D) are in an inverse relationship, it is not surprising that most of the studies have reported a decrease in PTH levels after vitamin D intake (Table 1). In some studies, however, there was no change in PTH levels after vitamin D intake (Table 1). On the other hand, a meta-analysis by Moslehi et al. confirmed that PTH levels are reduced by vitamin D intake [70]. Vitamin A intake decreased [63,71] or did not affect PTH levels [72]. In vitro studies in human [73] and bovine parathyroid cells [74] have shown that retinoic acid (a metabolite of vitamin A) directly suppresses PTH secretion.
No changes in calcitonin levels were observed after vitamin D intake [75]. While calcitonin stimulates 1,25(OH)2D synthesis, 1,25(OH)2D reduces the synthesis of calcitonin [76]. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct additional studies on the relationship between vitamin D and calcitonin.
Most studies have shown that calcium intake decreases PTH levels (Table 1), which is logical since PTH is released in hypocalcemia. Magnesium intake either increased [77,78] or did not affect [32,79] PTH levels. The relationship between PTH and magnesium is complex because PTH improves magnesium absorption [80], and magnesium reduces PTH secretion in a state of moderately low calcium concentration [81,82]. Zinc intake [83] did not affect PTH levels. However, a study in rats showed that a zinc-deficient diet increased PTH levels [84], while patients with primary hyperparathyroidism had decreased serum zinc levels [85].
Zinc intake decreased calcitonin levels [83,86], while copper intake [86] did not affect calcitonin levels. Intake of both zinc and copper resulted in inhibition of bone loss [87,88].

3.1.4. Alcohol

Studies investigating the influence of alcohol on PTH levels have yielded conflicting results. Some studies have found a decrease in PTH levels in alcoholics, while most studies have not reported a significant change in PTH levels due to alcohol consumption (Table 1). Moreover, the two largest studies involving more than 7000 participants yielded conflicting results; Jorde et al. observed a significant reduction in PTH levels in alcoholics [30], while Paik et al. did not notice a significant change in PTH levels in alcoholics [32]. Because alcohol inhibits bone regeneration [89], it has been suggested that alcohol intake reduces PTH levels [90,91,92] and increases calcitonin levels [93].
Several studies investigated calcitonin levels in alcoholics, and all yielded conflicting results (Table 2) with calcitonin levels that were increased [94], decreased [95], or unchanged [96] in alcoholics. Schuster et al. suggested that the reduction in calcitonin in chronic alcoholism is due to lower calcium concentration at this stage of alcohol consumption [95]. Interestingly, animal studies have shown that salmon calcitonin intake reduces various alcohol-related behaviors [97,98].

3.1.5. Exercise

Most studies that have investigated the influence of exercise on PTH levels have reported an increase in PTH levels during and after exercise (Table 1). However, most of these studies involved a small number of participants (less than 50). In contrast to the results of these studies, two studies involving as many as 7561 [31] and 3427 [30] participants reported a decrease in PTH levels after exercise. Causes of inconsistencies between studies may be the physical status of the participants; the age and gender of the participants; and the type, duration, and intensity of the exercise [99]. PTH is thought to increase during high-intensity exercise (reviewed in [100]). Although exercise is thought to be beneficial for BMD, some groups of professional athletes have had significant reductions in BMD [101,102]. It has been suggested that intense exercise leads to a decrease in calcium levels, resulting in an increase in PTH. Elevated PTH levels may contribute to bone resorption (reviewed in [103]). Moreover, Shea et al. suggested that calcium supplementation during exercise could reduce bone resorption [104]. However, other researchers have noticed an increase in PTH levels during exercise despite the stability of calcium levels (reviewed in [103]). Some other factors that can lead to an increase in PTH during exercise are increased catecholamine release (which stimulates PTH release) [105], increased aldosterone release (which increases PTH and calcitonin release) [80], and acidosis (stimulates PTH release) [106].
Calcitonin levels increased [107,108] or did not change [20,109,110,111,112] during exercise. However, these results should be verified in larger cohorts as most of these studies involved less than 30 participants (Table 2). Calcitonin levels could increase during exercise due to an increase in aldosterone levels [80].
Table
Table 1. Lifestyle factors that affect PTH levels in humans.
Table 1. Lifestyle factors that affect PTH levels in humans.
FactorEffect on Hormone LevelsNumber of ParticipantsParticipantsReference
SmokingSmoking↓PTH170 (men)Healthy adults[113]
Smoking↓PTH376Healthy adults[114]
Smoking↓PTH510Healthy adults[62]
Smoking↔PTH535Healthy adults[115]
Smoking↔PTH1203Healthy adults[116]
Smoking↓iPTH177Healthy adults[117]
Smoking↓PTH (in mothers and their new-borns)61Mothers and their new-borns[33]
Smoking↓iPTH31 (men)Healthy adults[118]
Smoking↔iPTH43 (women)Healthy adults[118]
Smoking↓PTH7896Healthy adults[30]
Smoking↓PTH405 (women)Healthy adults[37]
Smoking↓PTH958 (men)Healthy adults[119]
Smoking↔PTH136Healthy adults[92]
Smoking↓PTH406Healthy adults[38]
Smoking↔PTH32122758 healthy adults + 454 participants with coronary heart disease[120]
Smoking↓iPTH347Healthy adults[61]
Smoking↔PTH1206Healthy adults[121]
Smoking↔PTH1068Healthy adults[122]
Smoking↓iPTH345216 healthy adults + 129 men with earlier partial gastrectomy[123]
Smoking↓PTH7561Healthy adults[31]
Smoking↓iPTH3949Healthy adults[124]
Smoking↔PTH32Healthy adults[125]
Smoking↓PTH1288Healthy adults[63]
Smoking↓PTH7652Healthy adults[32]
Smoking↔PTH414Healthy adults[126]
Smoking↓PTH2810Healthy adults[127]
Smoking↔PTH1205Healthy adults[128]
↔PTH719 (men)
Smoking↑PTH128 (participants with low
body weight (≤75 kg))		Healthy adults[129]
Smoking↓PTH1067 (women)Healthy adults[130]
Smoking↓PTH47 (women)Healthy adults[131]
Smoking↔PTH489 (women)Healthy adults[91]
Smoking↓PTH908Healthy adults[132]
Smoking↓PTH294 (women)Healthy adults[18]
Smoking↔PTH58Healthy adults[133]
Alcohol consumptionAlcohol↔PTH535Healthy adults[115]
Alcohol↔PTH510Healthy adults[62]
Alcohol↔PTH1203Healthy adults[116]
Alcohol↓PTH7896Healthy adults[30]
Alcohol↓PTH136Healthy adults[92]
Alcohol↔PTH1206Healthy adults[121]
Alcohol↓iPTH3949Healthy adults[124]
Alcohol↔PTH1288Healthy adults[63]
Alcohol↔PTH414Healthy adults[126]
Alcohol↔PTH1205Healthy adults[128]
Alcohol↔PTH7652Healthy adults[32]
Alcohol↔PTH27 (men)Healthy adults, alcoholics[134]
Alcohol↔PTH21 (men)Healthy adults, alcoholics[135]
Alcohol↓PTH6Healthy adults[90]
Alcohol↔PTH47Healthy adults, alcoholics[95]
Alcohol↔PTH26Healthy adults[136]
Alcohol↓PTH136Healthy adults[92]
Alcohol↓PTH (increase in PTH levels after alcohol withdrawal)26Healthy adults, alcoholics[137]
Alcohol↔iPTH36 (men)Healthy adults, alcoholics[138]
Alcohol↓immunoreactive PTH104 (men)Healthy adults[139]
Increased BMI↑BMI↔PTH535Healthy adults[115]
↑BMI↑PTH510Healthy adults[62]
↑BMI↑PTH1203Healthy adults[116]
↑BMI↑PTH7896Healthy adults[30]
↑BMI↑PTH7561Healthy adults[31]
↑BMI↑PTH32122758 healthy adults + 454 participants with coronary heart disease[120]
↑BMI↑iPTH347Healthy adults[61]
↑BMI↑PTH1206Healthy adults[121]
↑BMI↑PTH2810Healthy adults[127]
↑BMI↑PTH1205Healthy adults[128]
↑BMI↑PTH7652Healthy adults[32]
↑BMI↑PTH1288Healthy adults[63]
↑BMI↑iPTH3949Healthy adults[124]
↑BMI↑iPTH160Healthy adults[140]
↑BMI↑PTH483Healthy adults[141]
↑BMI↔PTH57Healthy adults[79]
↑BMI↑PTH57 (men)Healthy adults[142]
↑BMI↑PTH1628Dialysis patients[143]
↑BMI↑PTH419Children[144]
↑BMI↑PTH82 (women)Healthy adults[145]
↑BMI↑PTH316Healthy adults[146]
↑BMI↑iPTH332Healthy adults[147]
↑BMI↑PTH40Bariatric surgery patients and healthy controls[148]
↑BMI↑PTH316Patients who had attended the obesity clinics[149]
↑BMI↑PTH42Patients undergoing sleeve gastrectomy[150]
↑BMI↑PTH516Healthy adults[151]
↑BMI↑PTH3248 (women)Healthy adults[152]
↑BMI↑PTH669 (men)Healthy adults[153]
↑BMI↑iPTH590Hemodialysis patients[154]
↑BMI↑PTH2758 healthy adults + 454 participants with coronary heart diseaseHealthy adults[155]
↑BMI↑PTH250Healthy adults[156]
↑BMI↑PTH608Healthy adults[157]
↑BMI↑PTH496 (men)Patients with chronic kidney disease[158]
↑BMI↔PTH1436Healthy adults[159]
↑BMI↑PTH304 (women)Healthy adults[160]
↑BMI↑PTH156Obese children[161]
↑BMI↑PTH3002Healthy adults[162]
↑BMI↑PTH810 (women)Healthy adults[163]
↑BMI↑PTH (PTH = 21.4–65.8 pg/
mL)		131Healthy adults and subjects with primary hyperparathyroidism[41]
↓PTH (PTH = 147–2511.7 pg/mL)132
↑BMI↑PTH383 (women)Healthy adults[164]
↑BMI↑PTH2848Healthy adults[165]
↑BMI↑PTH453Healthy adults[166]
↑BMI↑PTH25Anorexia nervosa patients[167]
↑BMI↑PTH98Healthy adults[168]
↑BMI↑PTH625Healthy adults[71]
↑BMI↑PTH294Healthy adults[18]
DietDifferent sorts of vegetables, sausages, salami, mushrooms, eggs, white bread↑PTH1180Healthy adults[21]
Bran bread↓PTH
Traditional Inuit diet (diet
mainly of marine origin taken by Greenland inhabitants)		↓PTH535Healthy adults[115]
↑Total calorie intake↔iPTH3949Healthy adults[124]
Protein intake↔PTH7652Healthy adults[32]
Coronary Health Improvement Project (CHIP). CHIP intervention, which promotes a plant-based diet with little dairy intake and meat consumption↑PTH (after 6 weeks)119 (women)Healthy adults[57]
High-phosphorus,
low-calcium diets		↑PTH16Healthy adults[50]
The traditional Brazilian diet (fruits, vegetables, and small amounts of meat)↓PTH111Severely obese adults[169]
Extra virgin olive oil supplementation↔PTH111Severely obese adults[169]
Moderate dietary protein restriction↑PTH18Patients with idiopathic hypercalciuria and calcium nephrolithiasis[55]
Vegans vs omnivores↑PTH in vegans155Healthy adults[58]
The “Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension” (DASH) diet, rich in fiber and low-fat dairy↔PTH334Healthy adults[170]
Vegans vs. omnivores↔PTH210 (women)Healthy adults[171]
High protein and high dairy group↓PTH30 (women)Healthy adults[56]
Adequate protein and medium dairy group↓PTH30 (women)Healthy adults[56]
Adequate protein and low dairy↑PTH30 (women)Healthy adults[56]
Diet with low calcium:phosphorus ratio↑PTH147 (women)Healthy adults[51]
Low-protein diets (diets containing 0.7 and 0.8 g protein/kg)↑PTH8 (women)Healthy adults[54]
Higher consumption of a proinflammatory diet↑PTH7679Adults with/without chronic kidney disease[53]
High fruit and vegetable intake (consuming more than 3 servings of fruit and vegetables)↓PTH56Children[172]
Dietary calorie, vitamin D, and magnesium intake↔PTH98Healthy adults[168]
Vegetarians vs. controls↑iPTH44Healthy adults[59]
Intake of dietary fiber↑iPTH
Dietary calcium intake↓iPTH
Coffee↓iPTH181 (men)Healthy adults[61]
Coffee, tea↔PTH510Healthy adults[62]
Coffee↓PTH3427 (men)Healthy adults[30]
Caffeine intake↔PTH7652Healthy adults[32]
Caffeine intake↔PTH1288Healthy adults[63]
Vitamin D supplements↔PTH510Healthy adults[62]
Vitamin D supplements↓PTH4469 (women)Healthy adults[30]
Vitamin D supplements↓iPTH3949Healthy adults[124]
Vitamin D supplements↔PTH1288Healthy adults[63]
Vitamin D supplements↓PTH414Healthy adults[126]
Vitamin D intake↓PTH316Healthy adults[146]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH250Healthy adults[156]
Vitamin D intake↓PTH376 (women)Healthy adults[173]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTHMeta-analysis [70]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH77Healthy adults[174]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH247 (women)Healthy adults[175]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH877 (women)Healthy adults[176]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH270 (women)Healthy adults[75]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH313Healthy adults[177]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH103 (women)Elderly institutionalised women[178]
Vitamin D supplementation↔PTH128 (women)Healthy adults[179]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH145 (women)Healthy adults[180]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH60 (men)Healthy adults[181]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH192 (women)Healthy adults[182]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH191 (women)Ambulatory elderly women[183]
Vitamin D supplementation↔PTH208 (women)Healthy adults[184]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH314Healthy adults[185]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH1368Healthy adults[127]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH338Healthy adults[186]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH218Older patients[187]
Vitamin D supplementation↔PTH215Healthy adults[188]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH242Healthy adults[189]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH165Healthy overweight subjects[190]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH153Healthy adults[191]
Multiple micronutrient and calcium supplementation↓PTH153 (women)Healthy adults[191]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH158Overweight subjects[192]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH202Healthy adults[193]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH94Healthy adults[194]
Vitamin D supplementation↔PTH90Coronary artery disease patients[195]
Vitamin D supplementation↔PTH151Healthy adults[196]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH89Obese with pre- or early diabetes[197]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH112Hypertensive patients[198]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH230Adults with depression[199]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH77 (women)Healthy adults[200]
Vitamin D and calcium supplementation↓PTH173 (women)Healthy adults[201]
Vitamin D supplementation↓PTH112Parkinson disease[202]
Vitamin D supplementation↔PTH82Healthy adults[203]
Vitamin A intake↔PTH606Healthy adults[72]
Total calcium and vitamin A intake↓PTH625Healthy adults[71]
Vitamin A intake↓PTH1288Healthy adults[63]
The dietary intake of minerals (calcium, phosphate, and magnesium) and vitamin D↔PTH127Healthy adults[204]
Calcium supplements↓PTH414Healthy adults[126]
Calcium supplements↓PTH51Toddlers[205]
Calcium intake↓PTH7896Healthy adults[30]
Dietary calcium intake↓PTH181Healthy
adolescents		[206]
Calcium intake↓PTH1203Healthy adults[116]
Calcium intake↓PTH32122758 healthy adults + 454 participants with coronary heart disease[120]
Calcium intake↔PTH1288Healthy adults[63]
Calcium intake↓iPTH3949Healthy adults[124]
Dietary calcium intake↓PTH7652Healthy adults[32]
Calcium intake↔PTH57Healthy adults[79]
Animal/total calcium intake↓PTH316Healthy adults[146]
Dietary calcium↔PTH155 (women)Healthy adults[207]
Calcium supplements↓PTH566Healthy adults[208]
Intake of calcium↓PTH82Healthy adults[203]
Calcium intake derived from milk↓PTH245 (women)Healthy adults[173]
Magnesium intake↔PTH57Healthy adults[79]
Magnesium intake↔PTH7652Healthy adults[32]
Magnesium supplementation↑PTH10 (patients with hypoparathyroidism)Patients with osteoporosis[78]
↓PTH10 (patients with vitamin D insufficiency)
Magnesium supplementation↑iPTH23Children with diabetes[77]
Zinc infusion↔PTH38Patients of short stature, diabetes mellitus, and controls[83]
Phosphorus intake↔PTH7652Healthy adults[32]
Intervention group (exercise, vitamin D, calcium, protein
supplementation)		↓iPTH220Patients that were on bariatric surgery[209]
ExerciseExercise↓PTH7561Healthy adults[31]
Exercise↔PTH1288Healthy adults[63]
Exercise↓PTH3427 (men)Healthy adults[30]
Exercise↔PTH414Healthy adults[126]
Exercise↔PTH1205Healthy adults[128]
↑Sitting↑PTH566Healthy adults[208]
Exercise↓PTH625Healthy adults[71]
Exercise↑PTH12 (men)Healthy adults[210]
Exercise↑PTH20Healthy adults[211]
Exercise↓PTH54Chronic kidney disease patients[212]
Exercise↑PTH29Boys and young men[213]
Exercise↑PTH11 (men)Healthy adults[214]
Exercise↑PTH25Healthy adults[215]
Exercise↑PTH12 (men)Healthy adults[216]
Exercise↔iPTH100 (women)Healthy adults[217]
Exercise↑iPTH21Healthy adults[218]
Exercise↑iPTH7 (men)Healthy adults[219]
Exercise↓PTH5 (women)Healthy adults[220]
Exercise↑iPTH9 (men)Healthy adults[221]
Exercise↑PTH (during the exercise with the highest intensity)10 (men)Healthy adults[222]
Exercise↑PTH (during the exercise)
↔PTH (postexercise period)		10 (men)Healthy adults[223]
Exercise↑PTH10 (women)Healthy adults[104]
Exercise↑PTH51 (men)Healthy adults[224]
Exercise↓iPTH (moderate exercise)
↑iPTH (intensive exercise)		21 (women)Healthy adults[225]
Exercise↑PTH14 (women)Healthy adults[226]
Exercise↓PTH (with the onset of exercise)
↑PTH (intensive exercise)		10 (men)Healthy adults[227]
Exercise↑PTH17 (men)Healthy adults[228]
Exercise↑PTH100 (men)Healthy adults[229]
Exercise↑PTH9 (men)Healthy adults[111]
Exercise↑PTH26 (women)Healthy adults[230]
Exercise↑PTH18Healthy adults[112]
Exercise↑iPTH8 (men)Healthy adults[231]
Exercise↔PTH6 (men)Healthy adults[232]
Exercise↑PTH6 (men)Healthy adults[109]
Exercise↑PTH19 (men)Healthy adults[107]
Exercise↔PTH13 (men)Healthy adults[110]
Exercise↑PTH27 (men)Healthy adults[20]
BMI, body mass index; iPTH, intact parathyroid hormone; PTH, parathyroid hormone. Decreased (↓), unchanged (↔), increased (↑).
Table
Table 2. Lifestyle factors that affect calcitonin levels in humans.
Table 2. Lifestyle factors that affect calcitonin levels in humans.
FactorEffect on Hormone LevelsNumber of ParticipantsParticipantsReference
SmokingSmoking↔Calcitonin294 (women)Healthy adults[18]
Smoking↑Calcitonin9340People with type 2 diabetes[48]
Smoking↑Calcitonin142 (men)Healthy adults[233]
Smoking↑Calcitonin58Healthy adults[133]
Smoking↑Calcitonin120 (men)Healthy adults[234]
Smoking↑Calcitonin6341 (men)Healthy adults[17]
Alcohol consumptionAlcohol↔Calcitonin26Healthy adults[136]
Alcohol↔Calcitonin93Healthy adults[96]
Alcohol ↓Calcitonin (in a heavy drinking group)47Alcoholics[95]
Alcohol↑Calcitonin50Alcoholics + controls[94]
Increased BMI↑BMI↔Calcitonin467Patients with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis[235]
↑BMI↓Calcitonin294Healthy adults[18]
↑BMI↑Calcitonin9340People with type 2 diabetes[48]
↑BMI↑Calcitonin287Healthy adults[233]
↑BMI↔Calcitonin4638Healthy adults[17]
↑BMI↑Calcitonin31Patients with chronic kidney disease on hemodialysis[236]
Vitamins and mineralsVitamin D supplementation↔Calcitonin270 (women)Healthy adults[75]
Zinc infusion↓Calcitonin38Patients of short stature, diabetes mellitus, and controls[83]
High dietary zinc↓Calcitonin21Healthy adults[86]
High dietary copper↔Calcitonin21Healthy adults[86]
ExerciseExercise↔Calcitonin9 (men)Healthy adults[111]
Exercise↔Calcitonin18Healthy adults[112]
Exercise↔Calcitonin6 (men)Healthy adults[109]
Exercise↑Calcitonin19 (men)Healthy adults[107]
Exercise↔Calcitonin13 (men)Healthy adults[110]
Exercise↔Calcitonin27 (men)Healthy adults[20]
Raloxifene combined with aerobic exercise↑Calcitonin70Patients with osteoporosis[108]
BMI, body mass index. Decreased (↓), unchanged (↔), increased (↑).

3.2. Pollutants

3.2.1. Heavy Metals

Various heavy metals, such as cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and lead (Pb), affect PTH levels. Most studies have shown that PTH levels decrease after cadmium exposure (Table 3). Schutte et al., explained the decrease in PTH levels after cadmium exposure as a consequence of the direct osteotoxic effect of cadmium [18]. Exposure to cadmium leads to a decrease in bone density, resulting in increased release of calcium from bone tissue. The result of increased calcium release is the decrease in PTH levels [18]. In addition, cadmium has been shown to have a toxic effect on parathyroid glands [237]. However, some studies did not observe any effect [238,239,240] or observed an increase [241,242] in PTH levels in subjects exposed to cadmium. Studies in experimental animals observed an increase in PTH levels after cadmium exposure [243]. Arsenic exposure did not affect PTH levels [244]. Most studies reported an increase in PTH levels in subjects exposed to lead (Table 3). Lead inhibits 1α-hydroxylase (the enzyme responsible for the production of 1,25(OH)2D) [245], and since PTH and 25(OH)D are in an inverse relationship, a decrease in 25(OH)D levels results in an increase in PTH levels. PTH levels were also measured in Gulf War I veterans who were exposed to uranium, and it was shown that uranium exposure led to a decrease in PTH levels [246].
We found only one study that analyzed the influence of heavy metals on calcitonin levels. Schutte et al., observed an increase in calcitonin levels after cadmium exposure [18]. A study in rats showed that exposure to cadmium and lead decreased calcitonin levels [243,247]. Exposure of laying hens to cadmium led to a decrease in calcitonin levels [248], while a study in goldfish found no changes in calcitonin levels after cadmium exposure (although exposure to methylmercury increased calcitonin levels) [249].

3.2.2. Chemicals

Only a few studies have investigated the effect of chemicals on PTH levels in humans (Table 3). Exposure to persistent organochlorine compounds (p,p′-diphenyldichloroethene (p,p′-DDE) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)) did not affect PTH levels [132,250]. Exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) led to an increase in PTH levels [251]. Di Nisio et al. suggested that perfluoro-octanoic acid (PFOA) binds to vitamin D receptors, causing reduced 1,25(OH)D activity, which in turn increases PTH levels [251]. Fluoride exposure increases PTH levels [252]. According to researchers, excess fluoride alters calcium metabolism and potentially leads to secondary hyperparathyroidism (reviewed in [253]). Exposure to perchlorate, thiocyanate, and nitrate has led to a decrease in PTH levels, but the underlying mechanism of this action is not yet clear [19].
Data on the effect of chemicals and pesticides on calcitonin levels in humans are scarce. A study on goldfish has shown that bisphenol A inhibits the release of calcitonin [249]. Aroclor 1254 (PCB) increased calcitonin expression in rat thyroid [254]. Because many chemicals have an endocrine disruptive effect [255], further studies are needed on the impact of chemicals and pesticides on PTH and calcitonin levels.
Table
Table 3. Pollutants affecting PTH and calcitonin levels in humans.
Table 3. Pollutants affecting PTH and calcitonin levels in humans.
FactorEffect on Hormone LevelsNumber of ParticipantsParticipantsReference
Heavy metalsArsenic↔PTH–196Healthy adults[256]
Arsenic↔iPTH774Children and new-borns[244]
Cadmium↓PTH719 (women)Healthy adults[34]
Cadmium↓PTH85 (women)Healthy adults[257]
Cadmium↓PTH51 (men)Participants exposed to cadmium[258]
Cadmium↔PTH46Participants exposed to cadmium for a long period (some suffering from decreased
tubular function)		[240]
Cadmium↔PTH41 (women)Subjects with renal tubular dysfunction caused by exposure to cadmium[259]
Cadmium↓iPTH306Chronic peritoneal dialysis patients[260]
Cadmium in urine (maternal)↓PTH (in boys)
↑PTH (in girls)		504504 children in a mother–child cohort[242]
Cadmium in erythrocytes (maternal)↑PTH (in boys)
↓PTH (in girls)		504
Cadmium↔PTH60Patients with renal tubular damage caused by exposure to cadmium and healthy controls[238]
Cadmium↑PTH53Patients with renal tubular damage caused by exposure to cadmium and healthy controls[241]
Cadmium↓PTH (association lost after adjustment for smoking)908 (women)Healthy adults[132]
Cadmium↓PTH,
↑Calcitonin		294 (women)Healthy adults[18]
Cadmium↔PTH146Healthy adults[239]
Lead↑PTH89Healthy adults[245]
Lead↔PTH719 (women)Healthy adults[34]
Lead↔PTH51Dialysis patients[261]
Lead↑PTH146 (men)Healthy adults[262]
Lead↑iPTH315Chronic peritoneal dialysis patients[263]
Lead↑PTH115Hemodialysis patients[264]
Lead↔PTH47Healthy adults[265]
Lead↑PTH73 (women)Healthy adults[266]
Lead↑iPTH93Hemodialysis patients[267]
Uranium↔iPTH35Gulf War I veterans exposed to uranium[268]
Uranium↓iPTH35Gulf War I veterans exposed to uranium[246]
ChemicalsPersistent organochlorine compounds (CB-153)↔PTH908 (women)Healthy adults[132]
Persistent organochlorine compounds (p,p’-DDE)↔PTH
PFAS↑PTH100 (men)Healthy adults[251]
PCBs (exposed prenatally)↔PTH110Children in a mother–child cohort[250]
Fluoride↑PTH196Healthy adults[256]
Fluoride↑PTH84Patients with endemic fluorosis and healthy controls[252]
Fluoride↓PTH (in pregnant women)180Pregnant women and their new-borns[269]
↔PTH (in new-borns)
Lithium↔iPTH178Mother–child cohort[270]
Perchlorate↓PTH2207 (women)Healthy adults[19]
Nitrate↓PTH4265Healthy adults[19]
Thiocyanate↓PTH4265Healthy adults[19]
iPTH, intact parathyroid hormone; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; PFAS, perfluoroalkyl substances; p,p′-DDE, p,p′-diphenyldichloroethene; PTH, parathyroid hormone. Decreased (↓), unchanged (↔), increased (↑).

4. Conclusions

In this review, we gave an insight into environmental factors that affect the levels of PTH and calcitonin, two hormones that regulate calcium and phosphate homeostasis. We included literature discussing lifestyle factors (smoking, BMI, diet, alcohol, and exercise) and pollutants (heavy metals and chemicals) (Figure 1). In terms of lifestyle factors, most studies have shown a decrease in PTH levels in smokers, a positive correlation between BMI and PTH, an increase in PTH levels during exercise, and a decrease in PTH levels after vitamin D and calcium intake (Table 1). The results of studies on the impact of alcohol consumption and intake of different types of food and micronutrients (except for vitamin D and calcium) showed great variability (Table 1). Regarding studies that analyzed the effect of pollutants on PTH levels, the clearest relationship was between PTH and cadmium, with PTH levels decreasing after cadmium exposure (Table 3). While arsenic exposure did not affect PTH levels, lead exposure resulted in increased PTH levels (Table 3). Several studies have investigated the influence of chemicals on PTH levels in humans. Moreover, data on the effect of chemicals and heavy metals on calcitonin levels in humans are scarce, and most of the knowledge, to date, relies on studies in experimental animals. As for the relationship between lifestyle factors and calcitonin, several studies have been conducted on humans and have given great variability in results. The most consistent results were related to smoking (an increase in calcitonin levels was observed in smokers) (Table 2). Given the important role that PTH and calcitonin play in maintaining calcium and phosphate homeostasis in the body, additional studies on the influence of environmental and genetic factors that could affect the levels of these two hormones are extremely important.

Author Contributions

T.Z. and M.B.L. conceived the review. The first draft of the manuscript was written by M.B.L., I.G., N.P. and T.Z. revised and edited the manuscript critically for important intellectual content. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work has been supported by the Croatian Science Foundation under the project “Regulation of Thyroid and Parathyroid Function and Blood Calcium Homeostasis” (No. 2593).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

Authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

1,25(OH)2D3, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D; 25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D; As, arsenic; BMD, bone mineral density; BMI, body mass index; Ca, calcium; Cd, cadmium; F, fluoride; FGF-23, fibroblast growth factor 23; iPTH, intact parathyroid hormone; Mg, magnesium; Pb, lead; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; PFAS, perfluoroalkyl substances; PFOA, perfluoro-octanoic acid; p,p-DDE, p,p-diphenyldichloroethene; PTH, parathyroid hormone; Zn, zinc.

References

  1. Tebben, P.J.; Kumar, R. The hormonal regulation of calcium metabolism. In Seldin and Geibisch’s The Kidney; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2013; Volume 2, pp. 2249–2272. ISBN 9780123814623. [Google Scholar]
  2. Choi, N.W. Kidney and phosphate metabolism. Electrolytes Blood Press. 2008, 6, 77–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Gattineni, J.; Friedman, P.A. Regulation of hormone-sensitive renal phosphate transport. Vitam. Horm. 2015, 98, 249–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Talmage, R.V.; Vanderwiel, C.J.; Matthews, J.L. Calcitonin and phosphate. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 1981, 24, 235–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Jafari, N.; Abdollahpour, H.; Falahatkar, B. Stimulatory effects of short-term calcitonin administration on plasma calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and glucose in juvenile Siberian sturgeon Acipenser baerii. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 2020, 46, 1443–1449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Lofrese, J.J.; Basit, H.; Lappin, S.L. Physiology, Parathyroid; StatPearls Publishing LLC: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  7. Pearse, A.G. The cytochemistry of the thyroid C cells and their relationship to calcitonin. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 1966, 164, 478–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Bae, Y.J.; Schaab, M.; Kratzsch, J. Calcitonin as biomarker for the medullary thyroid carcinoma. Recent Res. Cancer Res. 2015, 204, 117–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Hunter, D.; De Lange, M.; Snieder, H.; MacGregor, A.J.; Swaminathan, R.; Thakker, R.V.; Spector, T.D. Genetic contribution to bone metabolism, calcium excretion, and vitamin D and parathyroid hormone regulation. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2001, 16, 371–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Robinson-Cohen, C.; Lutsey, P.L.; Kleber, M.E.; Nielson, C.M.; Mitchell, B.D.; Bis, J.C.; Eny, K.M.; Portas, L.; Eriksson, J.; Lorentzon, M.; et al. Genetic variants associated with circulating parathyroid hormone. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2017, 28, 1553–1565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Matana, A.; Brdar, D.; Torlak, V.; Boutin, T.; Popović, M.; Gunjača, I.; Kolčić, I.; Boraska Perica, V.; Punda, A.; Polašek, O.; et al. Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies novel loci associated with parathyroid hormone level. Mol. Med. 2018, 24, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Deftos, L.J.; Weisman, M.H.; Williams, G.W.; Karpf, D.B.; Frumar, A.M.; Davidson, B.J.; Parthemore, J.G.; Judd, H.L. Influence of age and sex on plasma calcitonin in human beings. N. Engl. J. Med. 1980, 302, 1351–1353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Haden, S.T.; Brown, E.M.; Hurwitz, S.; Scott, J.; Fuleihan, G.E.H. The effects of age and gender on parathyroid hormone dynamics. Clin. Endocrinol. 2000, 52, 329–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Carrivick, S.J.; Walsh, J.P.; Brown, S.J.; Wardrop, R.; Hadlow, N.C. Brief report: Does PTH increase with age, independent of 25-hydroxyvitamin D, phosphate, renal function, and ionized calcium? J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2015, 100, 2131–2134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Tiegs, R.D.; Body, J.J.; Barta, J.M.; Heath, H. Secretion and metabolism of monomeric human calcitonin: Effects of age, sex, and thyroid damage. J. Bone Miner. Res. 1986, 1, 339–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Mazeh, H.; Sippel, R.S.; Chen, H. The role of gender in primary hyperparathyroidism: Same disease, different presentation. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2012, 19, 2958–2962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Song, E.; Jeon, M.J.; Yoo, H.J.; Bae, S.J.; Kim, T.Y.; Kim, W.B.; Shong, Y.K.; Kim, H.K.; Kim, W.G. Gender-dependent reference range of serum calcitonin levels in healthy Korean adults. Endocrinol. Metab. 2021, 36, 365–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Schutte, R.; Nawrot, T.S.; Richart, T.; Thijs, L.; Vanderschueren, D.; Kuznetsova, T.; Van Hecks, E.; Roels, H.A.; Staessen, J.A. Bone resorption and environmental exposure to cadmium in women: A population study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116, 777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  19. Ko, W.C.; Liu, C.L.; Lee, J.J.; Liu, T.P.; Yang, P.S.; Hsu, Y.C.; Cheng, S.P. Negative association between serum parathyroid hormone levels and urinary perchlorate, nitrate, and thiocyanate concentrations in U.S. adults: The national health and nutrition examination survey 2005–2006. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e115245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Soria, M.; Haro, C.G.; Ansón, M.A.; Iñigo, C.; Calvo, M.L.; Escanero, J.F. Variations in serum magnesium and hormonal levels during incremental exercise. Magnes. Res. 2014, 27, 155–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Popović, M.; Matana, A.; Torlak, V.; Brdar, D.; Gunjača, I.; Boraska Perica, V.; Barbalić, M.; Kolčić, I.; Punda, A.; Polašek, O.; et al. The effect of multiple nutrients on plasma parathyroid hormone level in healthy individuals. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 70, 638–644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  22. Penido, M.G.M.G.; Alon, U.S. Phosphate homeostasis and its role in bone health. Pediatr. Nephrol. 2012, 27, 2039–2048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. Carter, P.; Schipani, E. The roles of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin in bone remodeling: Prospects for novel therapeutics. Endocr. Metab. Immune Disord. Drug Targets 2006, 6, 59–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Khundmiri, S.J.; Murray, R.D.; Lederer, E. PTH and Vitamin, D. Compr. Physiol. 2016, 6, 561–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Silver, J.; Levi, R. Regulation of PTH synthesis and secretion relevant to the management of secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. Suppl. 2005, 67, S8–S12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  26. Gutiérrez, O.M.; Mannstadt, M.; Isakova, T.; Rauh-Hain, J.A.; Tamez, H.; Shah, A.; Smith, K.; Lee, H.; Thadhani, R.; Jüppner, H.; et al. Fibroblast growth factor 23 and mortality among patients undergoing hemodialysis. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 359, 584–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  27. Saki, F.; Kassaee, S.R.; Salehifar, A.; Omrani, G.H.R. Interaction between serum FGF-23 and PTH in renal phosphate excretion, a case-control study in hypoparathyroid patients. BMC Nephrol. 2020, 21, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Lanske, B.; Razzaque, M.S. Molecular interactions of FGF23 and PTH in phosphate regulation. Kidney Int. 2014, 86, 1072–1074. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Ben-Dov, I.Z.; Galitzer, H.; Lavi-Moshayoff, V.; Goetz, R.; Kuro-o, M.; Mohammadi, M.; Sirkis, R.; Naveh-Many, T.; Silver, J. The parathyroid is a target organ for FGF23 in rats. J. Clin. Investig. 2007, 117, 4003–4008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  30. Jorde, R.; Saleh, F.; Figenschau, Y.; Kamycheva, E.; Haug, E.; Sundsfjord, J. Serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels in smokers and non-smokers. The fifth Tromsø study. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2005, 152, 39–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. He, J.L.; Scragg, R.K. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and blood pressure in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Am. J. Hypertens. 2011, 24, 911–917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Paik, J.M.; Farwell, W.R.; Taylor, E.N. Demographic, dietary, and serum factors and parathyroid hormone in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Osteoporos. Int. 2012, 23, 1727–1736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  33. Díaz-Gómez, N.M.; Mendoza, C.; González-González, N.L.; Barroso, F.; Jiménez-Sosa, A.; Domenech, E.; Clemente, I.; Barrios, Y.; Moya, M. Maternal smoking and the vitamin D-parathyroid hormone system during the perinatal period. J. Pediatr. 2007, 151, 618–623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Åkesson, A.; Bjellerup, P.; Lundh, T.; Lidfeldt, J.; Nerbrand, C.; Samsioe, G.; Skerfving, S.; Vahter, M. Cadmium-induced effects on bone in a population-based study of women. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 830–834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Mousavi, S.E.; Amini, H.; Heydarpour, P.; Amini Chermahini, F.; Godderis, L. Air pollution, environmental chemicals, and smoking may trigger vitamin D deficiency: Evidence and potential mechanisms. Environ. Int. 2019, 122, 67–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Al-Bashaireh, A.M.; Haddad, L.G.; Weaver, M.; Chengguo, X.; Kelly, D.L.; Yoon, S. The effect of tobacco smoking on bone mass: An overview of pathophysiologic mechanisms. J. Osteoporos. 2018, 2018, 1206235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Need, A.G.; Kemp, A.; Giles, N.; Morris, H.A.; Horowitz, M.; Nordin, B.E.C. Relationships between intestinal calcium absorption, serum vitamin D metabolites and smoking in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos. Int. 2002, 13, 83–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Jorde, R.; Stunes, A.K.; Kubiak, J.; Grimnes, G.; Thorsby, P.M.; Syversen, U. Smoking and other determinants of bone turnover. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0225539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Babić Leko, M.; Gunjača, I.; Pleić, N.; Zemunik, T. Environmental factors affecting thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroid hormone levels. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 6521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Tabassian, A.R.; Nylen, E.S.; Giron, A.E.; Snider, R.H.; Cassidy, M.M.; Becker, K.L. Evidence for cigarette smoke-induced calcitonin secretion from lungs of man and hamster. Life Sci. 1988, 42, 2323–2329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Yuan, T.J.; Chen, L.P.; Pan, Y.L.; Lu, Y.; Sun, L.H.; Zhao, H.Y.; Wang, W.Q.; Tao, B.; Liu, J.M. An inverted U-shaped relationship between parathyroid hormone and body weight, body mass index, body fat. Endocrine 2021, 72, 844–851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Wortsman, J.; Matsuoka, L.Y.; Chen, T.C.; Lu, Z.; Holick, M.F. Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 72, 690–693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Bolland, M.J.; Grey, A.B.; Ames, R.W.; Horne, A.M.; Gamble, G.D.; Reid, I.R. Fat mass is an important predictor of parathyroid hormone levels in postmenopausal women. Bone 2006, 38, 317–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Ni, Z.; Smogorzewski, M.; Massry, S.G. Effects of parathyroid hormone on cytosolic calcium of rat adipocytes. Endocrinology 1994, 135, 1837–1844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. McCarty, M.F.; Thomas, C.A. PTH excess may promote weight gain by impeding catecholamine-induced lipolysis-implications for the impact of calcium, vitamin D, and alcohol on body weight. Med. Hypotheses 2003, 61, 535–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Rickard, D.J.; Wang, F.L.; Rodriguez-Rojas, A.M.; Wu, Z.; Trice, W.J.; Hoffman, S.J.; Votta, B.; Stroup, G.B.; Kumar, S.; Nuttall, M.E. Intermittent treatment with parathyroid hormone (PTH) as well as a non-peptide small molecule agonist of the PTH1 receptor inhibits adipocyte differentiation in human bone marrow stromal cells. Bone 2006, 39, 1361–1372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. He, Y.; Liu, R.X.; Zhu, M.T.; Shen, W.B.; Xie, J.; Zhang, Z.Y.; Chen, N.; Shan, C.; Guo, X.-z.; Tao, B.; et al. The browning of white adipose tissue and body weight loss in primary hyperparathyroidism. EBioMedicine 2019, 40, 56–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Daniels, G.H.; Hegedüs, L.; Marso, S.P.; Nauck, M.A.; Zinman, B.; Bergenstal, R.M.; Mann, J.F.E.; Derving Karsbøl, J.; Moses, A.C.; Buse, J.B.; et al. LEADER 2: Baseline calcitonin in 9340 people with type 2 diabetes enrolled in the Liraglutide Effect and Action in Diabetes: Evaluation of cardiovascular outcome Results (LEADER) trial: Preliminary observations. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2015, 17, 477–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  49. Mathiesen, D.S.; Lund, A.; Vilsbøll, T.; Knop, F.K.; Bagger, J.I. Amylin and calcitonin: Potential therapeutic strategies to reduce body weight and liver fat. Front. Endocrinol. 2021, 11, 1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Calvo, M.S.; Kumar, R.; Heath, H. Elevated secretion and action of serum parathyroid hormone in young adults consuming high phosphorus, low calcium diets assembled from common foods. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1988, 66, 823–829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Kemi, V.E.; Kärkkäinen, M.U.M.; Rita, H.J.; Laaksonen, M.M.L.; Outila, T.A.; Lamberg-Allardt, C.J.E. Low calcium:phosphorus ratio in habitual diets affects serum parathyroid hormone concentration and calcium metabolism in healthy women with adequate calcium intake. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 103, 561–568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Lederer, E. Regulation of serum phosphate. J. Physiol. 2014, 592, 3985–3995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Qin, Z.; Yang, Q.; Liao, R.; Su, B. The association between dietary inflammatory index and parathyroid hormone in adults with/without chronic kidney disease. Front. Nutr. 2021, 8, 364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Kerstetter, J.E.; Svastisalee, C.M.; Caseria, D.M.; Mitnick, M.A.E.; Insogna, K.L. A threshold for low-protein-diet-induced elevations in parathyroid hormone. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 72, 168–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Giannini, S.; Nobile, M.; Sartori, L.; Carbonare, L.D.; Ciuffreda, M.; Corrò, P.; D’Angelo, A.; Calò, L.; Crepaldi, G. Acute effects of moderate dietary protein restriction in patients with idiopathic hypercalciuria and calcium nephrolithiasis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999, 69, 267–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Josse, A.R.; Atkinson, S.A.; Tarnopolsky, M.A.; Phillips, S.M. Diets higher in dairy foods and dietary protein support bone health during diet- and exercise-induced weight loss in overweight and obese premenopausal women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2012, 97, 251–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Merrill, R.M.; Aldana, S.G. Consequences of a plant-based diet with low dairy consumption on intake of bone-relevant nutrients. J. Women’s Health 2009, 18, 691–698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Hansen, T.H.; Madsen, M.T.B.; Jørgensen, N.R.; Cohen, A.S.; Hansen, T.; Vestergaard, H.; Pedersen, O.; Allin, K.H. Bone turnover, calcium homeostasis, and vitamin D status in Danish vegans. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 72, 1046–1054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. Lamberg-Allardt, C.; Kärkkäinen, M.; Seppänen, R.; Biström, H. Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations and secondary hyperparathyroidism in middle-aged white strict vegetarians. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1993, 58, 684–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  60. Hu, R.; Huang, X.; Huang, J.; Li, Y.; Zhang, C.; Yin, Y.; Chen, Z.; Jin, Y.; Cai, J.; Cui, F. Long- and short-term health effects of pesticide exposure: A cohort study from China. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0128766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Landin-Wilhelmsen, K.; Wilhelmsen, L.; Lappas, G.; Rosén, T.; Lindstedt, G.; Lundberg, P.A.; Wilske, J.; Bengtsson, B.Å. Serum intact parathyroid hormone in a random population sample of men and women: Relationship to anthropometry, life-style factors, blood pressure, and vitamin D. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1995, 56, 104–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Brot, C.; Jøorgensen, N.R.; Sørensen, O.H. The influence of smoking on vitamin D status and calcium metabolism. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999, 53, 920–926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  63. Paik, J.M.; Curhan, G.C.; Forman, J.P.; Taylor, E.N. Determinants of plasma parathyroid hormone levels in young women. Calcif. Tissue Int. 2010, 87, 211–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  64. Parthemore, J.G.; Deftos, L.J. Calcitonin secretion in normal human subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1978, 47, 184–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Pedrazzoni, M.; Ciotti, G.; Davoli, L.; Pioli, G.; Girasole, G.; Palummeri, E.; Passeri, M. Meal-stimulated gastrin release and calcitonin secretion. J. Endocrinol. Investig. 1989, 12, 409–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Zayed, A.; Alzubaidi, M.; Atallah, S.; Momani, M.; Al-Delaimy, W. Should food intake and circadian rhythm be considered when measuring serum calcitonin level? Endocr. Pract. 2013, 19, 620–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Pointillart, A.; Garel, J.M.; Gueguen, L.; Colin, C. Plasma calcitonin and parathyroid hormone levels in growing pigs on different diets. I.—High phosphorus diet. Ann. Biol. Anim. Biochim. Biophys. 1978, 18, 699–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Deftos, L.J.; Miller, M.M.; Burton, D.W. A high-fat diet increases calcitonin secretion in the rat. Bone Miner. 1989, 5, 303–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Grundmann, M.; von Versen-Höynck, F. Vitamin D—Roles in women’s reproductive health? Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 2011, 9, 146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  70. Moslehi, N.; Shab-Bidar, S.; Mirmiran, P.; Hosseinpanah, F.; Azizi, F. Determinants of parathyroid hormone response to vitamin D supplementation: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br. J. Nutr. 2015, 114, 1360–1374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  71. Vaidya, A.; Curhan, G.C.; Paik, J.M.; Wang, M.; Taylor, E.N. Physical activity and the risk of primary hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2016, 101, 1590–1597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  72. Engström, A.; Håkansson, H.; Skerfving, S.; Bjellerup, P.; Lidfeldt, J.; Lundh, T.; Samsioe, G.; Vahter, M.; Åkesson, A. Retinol may counteract the negative effect of cadmium on bone. J. Nutr. 2011, 141, 2198–2203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  73. Liu, W.; Ridefelt, P.; Akerström, G.; Hellman, P. Differentiation of human parathyroid cells in culture. J. Endocrinol. 2001, 168, 417–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  74. MacDonald, P.N.; Ritter, C.; Brown, A.J.; Slatopolsky, E. Retinoic acid suppresses parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion and PreproPTH mRNA levels in bovine parathyroid cell culture. J. Clin. Investig. 1994, 93, 725–730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  75. Ooms, M.E.; Roos, J.C.; Bezemer, P.D.; van der Vijgh, W.J.F.; Bouter, L.M.; Lips, P. Prevention of bone loss by vitamin D supplementation in elderly women: A randomized double-blind trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1995, 80, 1052–1058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  76. Naveh-Many, T.; Silver, J. Regulation of calcitonin gene transcription by vitamin D metabolites in vivo in the rat. J. Clin. Investig. 1988, 81, 270–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Saggese, G.; Federico, G.; Bertelloni, S.; Baroncelli, G.I.; Calisti, L. Hypomagnesemia and the parathyroid hormone-vitamin D endocrine system in children with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: Effects of magnesium administration. J. Pediatr. 1991, 118, 220–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Sahota, O.; Mundey, M.K.; San, P.; Godber, I.M.; Hosking, D.J. Vitamin D insufficiency and the blunted PTH response in established osteoporosis: The role of magnesium deficiency. Osteoporos. Int. 2006, 17, 1013–1021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Cheung, M.M.; DeLuccia, R.; Ramadoss, R.K.; Aljahdali, A.; Volpe, S.L.; Shewokis, P.A.; Sukumar, D. Low dietary magnesium intake alters vitamin D-parathyroid hormone relationship in adults who are overweight or obese. Nutr. Res. 2019, 69, 82–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  80. Dai, L.J.; Ritchie, G.; Kerstan, D.; Kang, H.S.; Cole, D.E.C.; Quamme, G.A. Magnesium transport in the renal distal convoluted tubule. Physiol. Rev. 2001, 81, 51–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. McGonigle, R.; Weston, M.; Keenan, J.; Jackson, D.; Parsons, V. Effect of hypermagnesemia on circulating plasma parathyroid hormone in patients on regular hemodialysis therapy. Magnesium 1984, 3, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  82. Ohya, M.; Negi, S.; Sakaguchi, T.; Koiwa, F.; Ando, R.; Komatsu, Y.; Shinoda, T.; Inaguma, D.; Joki, N.; Yamaka, T.; et al. Significance of serum magnesium as an independent correlative factor on the parathyroid hormone level in uremic patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2014, 99, 3873–3878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  83. Nishiyama, S.; Nakamura, T.; Higashi, A.; Matsuda, I. Infusion of zinc inhibits serum calcitonin levels in patients with various zinc status. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1991, 49, 179–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Suzuki, T.; Kajita, Y.; Katsumata, S.I.; Matsuzaki, H.; Suzuki, K. Zinc deficiency increases serum concentrations of parathyroid hormone through a decrease in serum calcium and induces bone fragility in rats. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 2015, 61, 382–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  85. Alkan Baylan, F.; Bankir, M.; Acıbucu, F.; Kılınç, M. Zinc copper levels in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. Cumhur. Med. J. 2021, 43, 117–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Nielsen, F.H.; Milne, D.B. A moderately high intake compared to a low intake of zinc depresses magnesium balance and alters indices of bone turnover in postmenopausal women. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 58, 703–710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  87. Strause, L.; Saltman, P.; Smith, K.T.; Bracker, M.; Andon, M.B. Spinal bone loss in postmenopausal women supplemented with calcium and trace minerals. J. Nutr. 1994, 124, 1060–1064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  88. Eaton Evans, J.; Mcilrath, E.M.; Jackson, W.E.; Mccartney, H.; Strain, J.J. Copper supplementation and the maintenance of bone mineral density in middle-aged women. J. Trace Elem. Exp. Med. 1996, 9, 87–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Marrone, J.A.; Maddalozzo, G.F.; Branscum, A.J.; Hardin, K.; Cialdella-Kam, L.; Philbrick, K.A.; Breggia, A.C.; Rosen, C.J.; Turner, R.T.; Iwaniec, U.T. Moderate alcohol intake lowers biochemical markers of bone turnover in postmenopausal women. Menopause 2012, 19, 974–979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  90. Laitinen, K.; Lamberg-Allardt, C.; Tunninen, R.; Karonen, S.-L.; Tähtelä, R.; Ylikahri, R.; Välimäki, M. Transient hypoparathyroidism during acute alcohol intoxication. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991, 324, 721–727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  91. Rapuri, P.B.; Gallagher, J.C.; Balhorn, K.E.; Ryschon, K.L. Smoking and bone metabolism in elderly women. Bone 2000, 27, 429–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Ilich, J.Z.; Brownbill, R.A.; Tamborini, L.; Crncevic-Orlic, Z. To drink or not to drink: How are alcohol, caffeine and past smoking related to bone mineral density in elderly women? J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2002, 21, 536–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Rico, H. Alcohol and bone disease. Alcohol Alcohol. 1990, 25, 345–352. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  94. Vantyghem, M.C.; Danel, T.; Marcelli-Tourvieille, S.; Moriau, J.; Leclerc, L.; Cardot-Bauters, C.; Docao, C.; Carnaille, B.; Wemeau, J.L.; D’Herbomez, M. Calcitonin levels do not decrease with weaning in chronic alcoholism. Thyroid 2007, 17, 213–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  95. Schuster, R.; Koopmann, A.; Grosshans, M.; Reinhard, I.; Spanagel, R.; Kiefer, F. Association of plasma calcium concentrations with alcohol craving: New data on potential pathways. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017, 27, 42–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Ilias, I.; Paparrigopoulos, T.; Tzavellas, E.; Karaiskos, D.; Meristoudis, G.; Liappas, A.; Liappas, I. Inpatient alcohol detoxification and plasma calcitonin (with original findings). Hell. J. Nucl. Med. 2011, 14, 177–178. [Google Scholar]
  97. Kalafateli, A.L.; Vallöf, D.; Colombo, G.; Lorrai, I.; Maccioni, P.; Jerlhag, E. An amylin analogue attenuates alcohol-related behaviours in various animal models of alcohol use disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019, 44, 1093–1102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Kalafateli, A.L.; Satir, T.M.; Vallöf, D.; Zetterberg, H.; Jerlhag, E. An amylin and calcitonin receptor agonist modulates alcohol behaviors by acting on reward-related areas in the brain. Prog. Neurobiol. 2021, 200, 101969. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Ylli, D.; Wartofsky, L. Can we link thyroid status, energy expenditure, and body composition to management of subclinical thyroid dysfunction? J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2019, 104, 209–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Bouassida, A.; Latiri, I.; Bouassida, S.; Zalleg, D.; Zaouali, M.; Feki, Y.; Gharbi, N.; Zbidi, A.; Tabka, Z. Parathyroid hormone and physical exercise: A brief review. J. Sport. Sci. Med. 2006, 5, 367. [Google Scholar]
  101. Nichols, J.F.; Palmer, J.E.; Levy, S.S. Low bone mineral density in highly trained male master cyclists. Osteoporos. Int. 2003, 14, 644–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  102. Hind, K.; Truscott, J.G.; Evans, J.A. Low lumbar spine bone mineral density in both male and female endurance runners. Bone 2006, 39, 880–885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Lombardi, G.; Ziemann, E.; Banfi, G.; Corbetta, S. Physical activity-dependent regulation of parathyroid hormone and calcium-phosphorous metabolism. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 5388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Shea, K.L.; Barry, D.W.; Sherk, V.D.; Hansen, K.C.; Wolfe, P.; Kohrt, W.M. Calcium supplementation and parathyroid hormone response to vigorous walking in postmenopausal women. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 2014, 46, 2007–2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  105. Blum, J.W.; Fischer, J.A.; Hunziker, W.H.; Binswanger, U.; Picotti, G.B.; Da Prada, M.; Guillebeau, A. Parathyroid hormone responses to catecholamines and to changes of extracellular calcium in cows. J. Clin. Investig. 1978, 61, 1113–1122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  106. López, I.; Aguilera-Tejero, E.; Estepa, J.C.; Rodríguez, M.; Felsenfeld, A.J. Role of acidosis-induced increases in calcium on PTH secretion in acute metabolic and respiratory acidosis in the dog. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 286, E780–E785. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Lin, L.L.; Hsieh, S.S. Effects of strength and endurance exercise on calcium-regulating hormones between different levels of physical activity. J. Mech. Med. Biol. 2005, 5, 267–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Zhao, C.; Hou, H.; Chen, Y.; Lv, K. Effect of aerobic exercise and raloxifene combination therapy on senileosteoporosis. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 2016, 28, 1791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  109. Henderson, S.A.; Graham, H.K.; Mollan, R.A.B.; Riddoch, C.; Sheridan, B.; Johnston, H. Calcium homeostasis and exercise. Int. Orthop. 1989, 13, 69–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. O’Neill, M.E.; Wilkinson, M.; Robinson, B.G.; McDowall, D.B.; Cooper, K.A.; Mihailidou, A.S.; Frewin, D.B.; Clifton-Bligh, P.; Hunyor, S.N. The effect of exercise on circulating immunoreactive calcitonin in men. Horm. Metab. Res. 1990, 22, 546–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Klausen, T.; Breum, L.; Sørensen, H.A.; Schifter, S.; Sonne, B. Plasma levels of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, calcitonin, and calcium in association with endurance exercise. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1993, 52, 205–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  112. Soria, M.; Anson, M.; Escanero, J.F. Correlation analysis of exercise-induced changes in plasma trace element and hormone levels during incremental exercise in well-trained athletes. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2016, 170, 55–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Çetin Kargin, N.; Marakoglu, K.; Unlu, A.; Kebapcilar, L.; Korucu, N. Comparison of bone turnover markers between male smoker and non-smoker. Acta Med. Mediterr. 2016, 32, 317–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Fujiyoshi, A.; Polgreen, L.E.; Gross, M.D.; Reis, J.P.; Sidney, S.; Jacobs, D.R. Smoking habits and parathyroid hormone concentrations in young adults: The CARDIA study. Bone Rep. 2016, 5, 104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  115. Andersen, S.; Noahsen, P.; Rex, K.F.; Fleischer, I.; Albertsen, N.; Jorgensen, M.E.; Schæbel, L.K.; Laursen, M.B. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, calcium and parathyroid hormone levels in Native and European populations in Greenland. Br. J. Nutr. 2018, 119, 391–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  116. Chen, W.R.; Sha, Y.; Chen, Y.D.; Shi, Y.; Yin, D.W.; Wang, H. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and serum lipid profiles in a middle-aged and elderly Chinese population. Endocr. Pract. 2014, 20, 556–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  117. Cutillas-Marco, E.; Fuertes-Prosper, A.; Grant, W.B.; Morales-Suárez-Varela, M. Vitamin D deficiency in South Europe: Effect of smoking and aging. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed. 2012, 28, 159–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  118. Supervía, A.; Nogués, X.; Enjuanes, A.; Vila, J.; Mellibovsky, L.; Serrano, S.; Aubía, J.; Díez-Pérez, A. Effect of smoking and smoking cessation on bone mass, bone remodeling, vitamin D, PTH and sex hormones. J. Musculoskelet. Neuronal Interact. 2006, 6, 234–241. [Google Scholar]
  119. Hagström, E.; Hellman, P.; Larsson, T.E.; Ingelsson, E.; Berglund, L.; Sundström, J.; Melhus, H.; Held, C.; Lind, L.; Michaëlsson, K.; et al. Plasma parathyroid hormone and the risk of cardiovascular mortality in the community. Circulation 2009, 119, 2765–2771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  120. Kamycheva, E.; Sundsfjord, J.; Jorde, R. Serum parathyroid hormone levels predict coronary heart disease: The Tromsø Study. Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Prev. Rehabil. 2004, 11, 69–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Li, L.; Yin, X.; Yao, C.; Zhu, X.; Wu, X. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and their associations with hypertension in a Chinese population. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e43344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  122. Lorentzon, M.; Mellström, D.; Haug, E.; Ohlsson, C. Smoking is associated with lower bone mineral density and reduced cortical thickness in young men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2007, 92, 497–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Mellstrom, D.; Johansson, C.; Johnell, O.; Lindstedt, G.; Lundberg, P.A.; Obrant, K.; Schoon, I.M.; Toss, G.; Ytterberg, B.O. Osteoporosis, metabolic aberrations, and increased risk for vertebral fractures after partial gastrectomy. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1993, 53, 370–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  124. Muntner, P.; Jones, T.M.; Hyre, A.D.; Melamed, M.L.; Alper, A.; Raggi, P.; Leonard, M.B. Association of serum intact parathyroid hormone with lower estimated glomerular filtration rate. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2009, 4, 186–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  125. Ortego-Centeno, N.; Muñoz-Torres, M.; Jódar, E.; Hernández-Quero, J.; Jurado-Duce, A.; De La Higuera Torres-Puchol, J. Effect of tobacco consumption on bone mineral density in healthy young males. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1997, 60, 496–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Saquib, N.; Von Mühlen, D.; Garland, C.F.; Barrett-Connor, E. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and bone mineral density in men: The Rancho Bernardo study. Osteoporos. Int. 2006, 17, 1734–1741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Sneve, M.; Emaus, N.; Joakimsen, R.M.; Jorde, R. The association between serum parathyroid hormone and bone mineral density, and the impact of smoking: The Tromso Study. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2008, 158, 401–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  128. Snijder, M.B.; Lips, P.; Seidell, J.C.; Visser, M.; Deeg, D.J.H.; Dekker, J.M.; Van Dam, R.M. Vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone levels in relation to blood pressure: A population-based study in older men and women. J. Intern. Med. 2007, 261, 558–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Szulc, P.; Garnero, P.; Claustrat, B.; Marchand, F.; Duboeuf, F.; Delmas, P.D. Increased bone resorption in moderate smokers with low body weight: The Minos study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2002, 87, 666–674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  130. Trevisan, C.; Alessi, A.; Girotti, G.; Zanforlini, B.M.; Bertocco, A.; Mazzochin, M.; Zoccarato, F.; Piovesan, F.; Dianin, M.; Giannini, S.; et al. The impact of smoking on bone metabolism, bone mineral density and vertebral fractures in postmenopausal women. J. Clin. Densitom. 2020, 23, 381–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Gudmundsson, J.A.; Ljunghall, S.; Bergquist, C.; Wide, L.; Nillius, S.J. Increased bone turnover during gonadotropin-releasing hormone superagonist-induced ovulation inhibition. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1987, 65, 159–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Rignell-Hydbom, A.; Skerfving, S.; Lundh, T.; Lindh, C.H.; Elmståhl, S.; Bjellerup, P.; Jünsson, B.A.; Strümberg, U.; Akesson, A. Exposure to cadmium and persistent organochlorine pollutants and its association with bone mineral density and markers of bone metabolism on postmenopausal women. Environ. Res. 2009, 109, 991–996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Eliasson, M.; Hagg, E.; Lundblad, D.; Karlsson, R.; Bucht, E. Influence of smoking and snuff use on electrolytes, adrenal and calcium regulating hormones. Acta Endocrinol. 1993, 128, 35–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  134. Bikle, D.D.; Stesin, A.; Halloran, B.; Steinbach, L.; Recker, R. Alcohol-induced bone disease: Relationship to age and parathyroid hormone levels. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1993, 17, 690–695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Johnell, O.; Kristensson, H.; Nilsson, B.E. Parathyroid activity in alcoholics. Br. J. Addict. 1982, 77, 93–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  136. Sripanyakorn, S.; Jugdaohsingh, R.; Mander, A.; Davidson, S.L.; Thompson, R.P.H.; Powell, J.J. Moderate ingestion of alcohol is associated with acute ethanol-induced suppression of circulating CTX in a PTH-independent fashion. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2009, 24, 1380–1388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  137. Wilkens Knudsen, A.; Jensen, J.E.B.; Nordgaard-Lassen, I.; Almdal, T.; Kondrup, J.; Becker, U. Nutritional intake and status in persons with alcohol dependency: Data from an outpatient treatment programme. Eur. J. Nutr. 2014, 53, 1483–1492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  138. Kim, M.J.; Shim, M.S.; Kim, M.K.; Lee, Y.; Shin, Y.G.; Chung, C.H.; Kwon, S.O. Effect of chronic alcohol ingestion on bone mineral density in males without liver cirrhosis. Korean J. Intern. Med. 2003, 18, 174–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  139. Perry, H.; Horowitz, M.; Fleming, S.; Kaiser, F.; Patrick, P.; Morley, J.; Cushman, W.; Bingham, S.; Perry, H. Effect of recent alcohol intake on parathyroid hormone and mineral metabolism in men. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1998, 22, 1369–1375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  140. Al-Sultan, A.; Amin, T.; Abou-Seif, M.; Naboli, M. Al Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone levels and insulin sensitivity among obese young adult Saudis. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2011, 15, 135–147. [Google Scholar]
  141. Bischof, M.G.; Heinze, G.; Vierhapper, H. Vitamin D status and its relation to age and body mass index. Horm. Res. 2006, 66, 211–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. Di Monaco, M.; Castiglioni, C.; Vallero, F.; Di Monaco, R.; Tappero, R. Parathyroid hormone is significantly associated with body fat compartment in men but not in women following a hip fracture. Aging Clin. Exp. Res. 2013, 25, 371–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  143. Drechsler, C.; Grootendorst, D.C.; Boeschoten, E.W.; Krediet, R.T.; Wanner, C.; Dekker, F.W. Changes in parathyroid hormone, body mass index and the association with mortality in dialysis patients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2011, 26, 1340–1346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  144. Durá-Travé, T.; Gallinas-Victoriano, F.; Chueca-Guindulain, M.J.; Berrade-Zubiri, S.; Urretavizcaya-Martinez, M.; Ahmed-Mohamed, L. Assessment of vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone during a combined intervention for the treatment of childhood obesity. Nutr. Diabetes 2019, 9, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  145. Abbasalizad Farhangi, M.; Ostadrahimi, A.; Mahboob, S. Serum calcium, magnesium, phosphorous and lipid profile in healthy Iranian premenopausal women. Biochem. Med. 2011, 21, 312–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  146. Gannagé-Yared, M.H.; Chemali, R.; Sfeir, C.; Maalouf, G.; Halaby, G. Dietary calcium and vitamin D intake in an adult Middle Eastern population: Food sources and relation to lifestyle and PTH. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 2005, 75, 281–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  147. Garcia, V.C.; Schuch, N.J.; Catania, A.S.; Gouvea Ferreira, S.R.; Martini, L.A. Parathyroid hormone has an important role in blood pressure regulation in vitamin D–insufficient individuals. Nutrition 2013, 29, 1147–1151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  148. Grethen, E.; Hill, K.M.; Jones, R.; Cacucci, B.M.; Gupta, C.E.; Acton, A.; Considine, R.V.; Peacock, M. Serum leptin, parathyroid hormone, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, fibroblast growth factor 23, bone alkaline phosphatase, and sclerostin relationships in obesity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2012, 97, 1655–1662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  149. Guasch, A.; Bulló, M.; Rabassa, A.; Bonada, A.; Del Castillo, D.; Sabench, F.; Salas-Salvadó, J. Plasma vitamin D and parathormone are associated with obesity and atherogenic dyslipidemia: A cross-sectional study. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2012, 11, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  150. Guglielmi, V.; Bellia, A.; Gentileschi, P.; Lombardo, M.; D’Adamo, M.; Lauro, D.; Sbraccia, P. Parathyroid hormone in surgery-induced weight loss: No glucometabolic effects but potential adaptive response to skeletal loading. Endocrine 2018, 59, 288–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  151. Gunnarsson, Ö.; Indridason, Ó.S.; Franzson, L.; Sigurdsson, G. Factors associated with elevated or blunted PTH response in vitamin D insufficient adults. J. Intern. Med. 2009, 265, 488–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Ha, J.; Jo, K.; Lim, D.J.; Lee, J.M.; Chang, S.A.; Kang, M.I.L.; Cha, B.Y.; Kim, M.H. Parathyroid hormone and vitamin D are associated with the risk of metabolic obesity in a middle-aged and older Korean population with preserved renal function: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0175132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Helal, O.; Kensara, O.; Azzeh, F.; Abdel Kafy, M. Effect of parathyroid hormone and body mass index on overall stability index in Saudi males with vitamin D deficiency. Life Sci. J. 2016, 13, 1–6. [Google Scholar]
  154. Ishimura, E.; Okuno, S.; Tsuboniwa, N.; Norimine, K.; Fukumoto, S.; Yamakawa, K.; Yamakawa, T.; Shoji, S.; Nishizawa, Y.; Inaba, M. Significant positive association between parathyroid hormone and fat mass and lean mass in chronic hemodialysis patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2013, 98, 1264–1270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  155. Kamycheva, E.; Sundsfjord, J.; Jorde, R. Serum parathyroid hormone level is associated with body mass index. The 5th Tromsø study. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2004, 151, 167–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  156. Kim, H.; Chandler, P.; Ng, K.; Manson, J.A.E.; Giovannucci, E. Obesity and efficacy of vitamin D 3 supplementation in healthy black adults. Cancer Causes Control 2020, 31, 303–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  157. Kontogeorgos, G.; Trimpou, P.; Laine, C.M.; Oleröd, G.; Lindahl, A.; Landin-Wilhelmsen, K. Normocalcaemic, vitamin D-sufficient hyperparathyroidism—High prevalence and low morbidity in the general population: A long-term follow-up study, the WHO MONICA project, Gothenburg, Sweden. Clin. Endocrinol. 2015, 83, 277–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  158. Kovesdy, C.P.; Ahmadzadeh, S.; Anderson, J.E.; Kalantar-Zadeh, K. Obesity is associated with secondary hyperparathyroidism in men with moderate and severe chronic kidney disease. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007, 2, 1024–1029. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  159. Li, M.; Lv, F.; Zhang, Z.; Deng, W.; Li, Y.; Deng, Z.; Jiang, Y.; Wang, O.; Xing, X.; Xu, L.; et al. Establishment of a normal reference value of parathyroid hormone in a large healthy Chinese population and evaluation of its relation to bone turnover and bone mineral density. Osteoporos. Int. 2016, 27, 1907–1916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  160. Marwaha, R.K.; Garg, M.K.; Mahalle, N.; Bhadra, K.; Tandon, N. Role of parathyroid hormone in determination of fat mass in patients with Vitamin D deficiency. Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab. 2017, 21, 848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  161. Reinehr, T.; de Sousa, G.; Alexy, U.; Kersting, M.; Andler, W. Vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone in obese children before and after weight loss. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2007, 157, 225–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  162. Van Ballegooijen, A.J.; Kestenbaum, B.; Sachs, M.C.; De Boer, I.H.; Siscovick, D.S.; Hoofnagle, A.N.; Ix, J.H.; Visser, M.; Brouwer, I.A. Association of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and parathyroid hormone with incident hypertension: MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2014, 63, 1214–1222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  163. You, L.; Chrn, L.; Pan, L.; Chen, J.; Peng, Y. Relation of body mass index to vitamin D, PTH, and bone turnover markers levels among women in Shanghai area. Chin. J. Endocrinol. Metab. 2013, 12, 566–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  164. Shapses, S.A.; Lee, E.J.; Sukumar, D.; Durazo-Arvizu, R.; Schneider, S.H. The effect of obesity on the relationship between serum parathyroid hormone and 25-hydroxyvitamin D in women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2013, 98, E886–E890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  165. Shin, S.-G.; Park, S.-K.; Kim, K.-M.; Kim, D.-H. Association of serum parathyroid hormone and vitamin D levels with cardiovascular risk factors. Korean J. Fam. Pract. 2017, 7, 55–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  166. Snijder, M.B.; Van Dam, R.M.; Visser, M.; Deeg, D.J.H.; Dekker, J.M.; Bouter, L.M.; Seidell, J.C.; Lips, P. Adiposity in relation to vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone levels: A population-based study in older men and women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005, 90, 4119–4123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  167. Svedlund, A.; Pettersson, C.; Tubic, B.; Magnusson, P.; Swolin-Eide, D. Vitamin D status in young Swedish women with anorexia nervosa during intensive weight gain therapy. Eur. J. Nutr. 2017, 56, 2061–2067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  168. Valiña-Tóth, A.L.B.; Lai, Z.; Yoo, W.; Abou-Samra, A.; Gadegbeku, C.A.; Flack, J.M. Relationship of vitamin D and parathyroid hormone to obesity and body composition in African Americans. Clin. Endocrinol. 2010, 72, 595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  169. Cardoso, C.K.d.S.; Santos, A.S.e.A.d.C.; Rosa, L.P.d.S.; Mendonça, C.R.; Vitorino, P.V.d.O.; Peixoto, M.D.R.G.; Silveira, É.A. Effect of extra virgin olive oil and traditional Brazilian diet on the bone health parameters of severely obese adults: A randomized controlled trial. Nutrients 2020, 12, 403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  170. Hassoon, A.; Michos, E.D.; Miller, E.R.; Crisp, Z.; Appel, L.J. Effects of different dietary interventions on calcitriol, parathyroid hormone, calcium, and phosphorus: Results from the DASH trial. Nutrients 2018, 10, 367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  171. Ho-Pham, L.T.; Vu, B.Q.; Lai, T.Q.; Nguyen, N.D.; Nguyen, T.V. Vegetarianism, bone loss, fracture and vitamin D: A longitudinal study in Asian vegans and non-vegans. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 66, 75–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  172. Tylavsky, F.A.; Holliday, K.; Danish, R.; Womack, C.; Norwood, J.; Carbone, L. Fruit and vegetable intakes are an independent predictor of bone size in early pubertal children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 79, 311–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  173. Kinyamu, H.K.; Gallagher, J.C.; Rafferty, K.A.; Balhorn, K.E. Dietary calcium and vitamin D intake in elderly women: Effect on serum parathyroid hormone and vitamin D metabolites. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998, 67, 342–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  174. Chapuy, M.C.; Chapuy, P.; Meunier, P.J. Calcium and vitamin D supplements: Effects on calcium metabolism in elderly people. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1987, 46, 324–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  175. Dawson-Hughes, B.; Dallal, G.E.; Krall, E.A.; Harris, S.; Sokoll, L.J.; Falconer, G. Effect of vitamin D supplementation on wintertime and overall bone loss in healthy postmenopausal women. Ann. Intern. Med. 1991, 115, 505–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  176. Chapuy, M.C.; Arlot, M.E.; Duboeuf, F.; Brun, J.; Crouzet, B.; Arnaud, S.; Delmas, P.D.; Meunier, P.J. Vitamin D3 and calcium to prevent hip fractures in elderly women. N. Engl. J. Med. 1992, 327, 1637–1642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  177. Dawson-Hughes, B.; Harris, S.S.; Krall, E.A.; Dallal, G.E. Effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on bone density in men and women 65 years of age or older. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997, 337, 670–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  178. Krieg, M.A.; Jacquet, A.F.; Bremgartner, M.; Cuttelod, S.; Thiébaud, D.; Burckhardt, P. Effect of supplementation with vitamin D3 and calcium on quantitative ultrasound of bone in elderly institutionalized women: A longitudinal study. Osteoporos. Int. 1999, 9, 483–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  179. Hunter, D.; Major, P.; Arden, N.; Swaminathan, R.; Andrew, T.; MacGregor, A.J.; Keen, R.; Snieder, H.; Spector, T.D. A randomized controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation on preventing postmenopausal bone loss and modifying bone metabolism using identical twin pairs. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2000, 15, 2276–2283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  180. Pfeifer, M.; Begerow, B.; Minne, H.W.; Nachtigall, D.; Hansen, C. Effects of a short-term vitamin D(3) and calcium supplementation on blood pressure and parathyroid hormone levels in elderly women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2001, 86, 1633–1637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  181. Kenny, A.M.; Biskup, B.; Robbins, B.; Marcella, G.; Burleson, J.A. Effects of vitamin D supplementation on strength, physical function, and health perception in older, community-dwelling men. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2003, 51, 1762–1767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  182. Grados, F.; Brazier, M.; Kamel, S.; Mathieu, M.; Hurtebize, N.; Maamer, M.; Garabédian, M.; Sebert, J.L.; Fardellone, P. Prediction of bone mass density variation by bone remodeling markers in postmenopausal women with vitamin D insufficiency treated with calcium and vitamin D supplementation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003, 88, 5175–5179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  183. Brazier, M.; Grados, F.; Kamel, S.; Mathieu, M.; Morel, A.; Maamer, M.; Sebert, J.L.; Fardellone, P. Clinical and laboratory safety of one year’s use of a combination calcium + vitamin D tablet in ambulatory elderly women with vitamin D insufficiency: Results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin. Ther. 2005, 27, 1885–1893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  184. Talwar, S.A.; Aloia, J.F.; Pollack, S.; Yeh, J.K. Dose response to vitamin D supplementation among postmenopausal African American women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 86, 1657–1662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  185. Pittas, A.G.; Harris, S.S.; Stark, P.C.; Dawson-Hughes, B. The effects of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on blood glucose and markers of inflammation in nondiabetic adults. Diabetes Care 2007, 30, 980–986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  186. Chel, V.; Wijnhoven, H.A.H.; Smit, J.H.; Ooms, M.; Lips, P. Efficacy of different doses and time intervals of oral vitamin D supplementation with or without calcium in elderly nursing home residents. Osteoporos. Int. 2008, 19, 663–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  187. Björkman, M.; Sorva, A.; Risteli, J.; Tilvis, R. Vitamin D supplementation has minor effects on parathyroid hormone and bone turnover markers in vitamin D-deficient bedridden older patients. Age Ageing 2008, 37, 25–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  188. Cashman, K.D.; Hill, T.R.; Lucey, A.J.; Taylor, N.; Seamans, K.M.; Muldowney, S.; FitzGerald, A.P.; Flynn, A.; Barnes, M.S.; Horigan, G.; et al. Estimation of the dietary requirement for vitamin D in healthy adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 1535–1542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  189. Pfeifer, M.; Begerow, B.; Minne, H.W.; Suppan, K.; Fahrleitner-Pammer, A.; Dobnig, H. Effects of a long-term vitamin D and calcium supplementation on falls and parameters of muscle function in community-dwelling older individuals. Osteoporos. Int. 2009, 20, 315–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  190. Zittermann, A.; Frisch, S.; Berthold, H.K.; Götting, C.; Kuhn, J.; Kleesiek, K.; Stehle, P.; Koertke, H.; Koerfer, R. Vitamin D supplementation enhances the beneficial effects of weight loss on cardiovascular disease risk markers. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 89, 1321–1327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  191. Islam, M.Z.; Shamim, A.A.; Viljakainen, H.T.; Akhtaruzzaman, M.; Jehan, A.H.; Khan, H.U.; Al-Arif, F.A.; Lamberg-Allardt, C. Effect of vitamin D, calcium and multiple micronutrient supplementation on vitamin D and bone status in Bangladeshi premenopausal garment factory workers with hypovitaminosis D: A double-blinded, randomised, placebo-controlled 1-year intervention. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 104, 241–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  192. Jorde, R.; Sneve, M.; Torjesen, P.; Figenschau, Y.; Hansen, J.B. Parameters of the thrombogram are associated with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels at baseline, but not affected during supplementation with vitamin D. Thromb. Res. 2010, 125, e210–e213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  193. Lips, P.; Binkley, N.; Pfeifer, M.; Recker, R.; Samanta, S.; Cohn, D.A.; Chandler, J.; Rosenberg, E.; Papanicolaou, D.A. Once-weekly dose of 8400 IU vitamin D(3) compared with placebo: Effects on neuromuscular function and tolerability in older adults with vitamin D insufficiency. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 91, 985–991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  194. Grimnes, G.; Figenschau, Y.; Almås, B.; Jorde, R. Vitamin D, insulin secretion, sensitivity, and lipids: Results from a case-control study and a randomized controlled trial using hyperglycemic clamp technique. Diabetes 2011, 60, 2748–2757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  195. Sokol, S.I.; Srinivas, V.; Crandall, J.P.; Kim, M.; Tellides, G.; Lebastchi, A.; Yu, Y.; Gupta, A.K.; Alderman, M.H. The effects of vitamin D repletion on endothelial function and inflammation in patients with coronary artery disease. Vasc. Med. 2012, 17, 394–404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  196. Ponda, M.P.; Dowd, K.; Finkielstein, D.; Holt, P.R.; Breslow, J.L. The short-term effects of vitamin D repletion on cholesterol: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2012, 32, 2510–2515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  197. Harris, S.S.; Pittas, A.G.; Palermo, N.J. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation to improve glycaemia in overweight and obese African Americans. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2012, 14, 789–794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  198. Larsen, T.; Mose, F.H.; Bech, J.N.; Hansen, A.B.; Pedersen, E.B. Effect of cholecalciferol supplementation during winter months in patients with hypertension: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am. J. Hypertens. 2012, 25, 1215–1222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  199. Kjærgaard, M.; Waterloo, K.; Wang, C.E.A.; Almås, B.; Figenschau, Y.; Hutchinson, M.S.; Svartberg, J.; Jorde, R. Effect of vitamin D supplement on depression scores in people with low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D: Nested case-control study and randomised clinical trial. Br. J. Psychiatry 2012, 201, 360–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  200. Salehpour, A.; Hosseinpanah, F.; Shidfar, F.; Vafa, M.; Razaghi, M.; Dehghani, S.; Hoshiarrad, A.; Gohari, M. A 12-week double-blind randomized clinical trial of vitamin D3 supplementation on body fat mass in healthy overweight and obese women. Nutr. J. 2012, 11, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  201. Goswami, R.; Vatsa, M.; Sreenivas, V.; Singh, U.; Gupta, N.; Lakshmy, R.; Aggarwal, S.; Ganapathy, A.; Joshi, P.; Bhatia, H. Skeletal muscle strength in young Asian Indian females after vitamin D and calcium supplementation: A double-blind randomized controlled clinical trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2012, 97, 4709–4716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  202. Suzuki, M.; Yoshioka, M.; Hashimoto, M.; Murakami, M.; Noya, M.; Takahashi, D.; Urashima, M. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation in Parkinson disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 97, 1004–1013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  203. Jorde, R.; Bønaa, K.H. Calcium from dairy products, vitamin D intake, and blood pressure: The Tromsø study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 71, 1530–1535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  204. Rudnicki, M.; Thode, J.; Jorgensen, T.; Heitmann, B.L.; Sorensen, O.H. Effects of age, sex, season and diet on serum ionized calcium, parathyroid hormone and vitamin D in a random population. J. Intern. Med. 1993, 234, 195–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  205. Khadilkar, A.; Mughal, M.Z.; Hanumante, N.; Sayyad, M.; Sanwalka, N.; Naik, S.; Fraser, W.D.; Joshi, A.; Khadilkar, V. Oral calcium supplementation reverses the biochemical pattern of parathyroid hormone resistance in underprivileged Indian toddlers. Arch. Dis. Child. 2009, 94, 932–937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  206. Patel, P.; Zulf Mughal, M.; Patel, P.; Yagnik, B.; Kajale, N.; Mandlik, R.; Khadilkar, V.; Chiplonkar, S.A.; Phanse, S.; Patwardhan, V.; et al. Dietary calcium intake influences the relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25OHD) concentration and parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentration. Arch. Dis. Child. 2016, 101, 316–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  207. Gunther, C.W.; Legowski, P.A.; Lyle, R.M.; Weaver, C.M.; McCabe, L.D.; McCabe, G.P.; Peacock, M.; Teegarden, D. Parathyroid hormone is associated with decreased fat mass in young healthy women. Int. J. Obes. 2006, 30, 94–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  208. Ke, L.; Mason, R.S.; Mpofu, E.; Dibley, M.; Li, Y.; Brock, K.E. Vitamin D and parathyroid hormone status in a representative population living in Macau, China. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2015, 148, 261–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  209. Muschitz, C.; Kocijan, R.; Haschka, J.; Zendeli, A.; Pirker, T.; Geiger, C.; Müller, A.; Tschinder, B.; Kocijan, A.; Marterer, C.; et al. The impact of vitamin D, calcium, protein supplementation, and physical exercise on bone metabolism after bariatric surgery: The BABS study. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2016, 31, 672–682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  210. Bouassida, A.; Zalleg, D.; Zaouali Ajina, M.; Gharbi, N.; Duclos, M.; Richalet, J.P.; Tabka, Z. Parathyroid hormone concentrations during and after two periods of high intensity exercise with and without an intervening recovery period. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2003, 88, 339–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  211. Brahm, H.; Piehl-Aulin, K.; Ljunghall, S. Bone metabolism during exercise and recovery: The influence of plasma volume and physical fitness. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1997, 61, 192–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  212. Dashtidehkordi, A.; Shahgholian, N.; Sadeghian, J. The effect of exercise during hemodialysis on serum levels of albumin, calcium, phosphorus and parathyroid hormone: A randomized clinical trial. Res. Square 2021, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  213. Falk, B.; Haddad, F.; Klentrou, P.; Ward, W.; Kish, K.; Mezil, Y.; Radom-Aizik, S. Differential sclerostin and parathyroid hormone response to exercise in boys and men. Osteoporos. Int. 2016, 27, 1245–1249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  214. Kohrt, W.M.; Wherry, S.J.; Wolfe, P.; Sherk, V.D.; Wellington, T.; Swanson, C.M.; Weaver, C.M.; Boxer, R.S. Maintenance of serum ionized calcium during exercise attenuates parathyroid hormone and bone resorption responses. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2018, 33, 1326–1334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  215. Kohrt, W.M.; Wolfe, P.; Sherk, V.D.; Wherry, S.J.; Wellington, T.; Melanson, E.L.; Swanson, C.M.; Weaver, C.M.; Boxer, R.S. Dermal calcium loss is not the primary determinant of parathyroid hormone secretion during exercise. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 2019, 51, 2117–2124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  216. Ljunghall, S.; Joborn, H.; Roxin, L.-E.; Rastad, J.; Wide, L.; Åkerström, G. Prolonged low-intensity exercise raises the serum parathyroid hormone levels. Clin. Endocrinol. 1986, 25, 535–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  217. Moreira, L.D.F.; Fronza, F.C.A.O.; Dos Santos, R.N.; Zach, P.L.; Kunii, I.S.; Hayashi, L.F.; Teixeira, L.R.; Kruel, L.F.M.; Castro, M.L. The benefits of a high-intensity aquatic exercise program (HydrOS) for bone metabolism and bone mass of postmenopausal women. J. Bone Miner. Metab. 2014, 32, 411–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  218. Maïmoun, L.; Simar, D.; Malatesta, D.; Caillaud, C.; Peruchon, E.; Couret, I.; Rossi, M.; Mariano-Goulart, D. Response of bone metabolism related hormones to a single session of strenuous exercise in active elderly subjects. Br. J. Sport. Med. 2005, 39, 497–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  219. Maïmoun, L.; Manetta, J.; Couret, I.; Dupuy, A.M.; Mariano-Goulart, D.; Micallef, J.P.; Peruchon, E.; Rossi, M. The intensity level of physical exercise and the bone metabolism response. Int. J. Sport. Med. 2006, 27, 105–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  220. Mathis, S.L.; Pivovarova, A.I.; Hicks, S.M.; Alrefai, H.; MacGregor, G.G. Calcium loss in sweat does not stimulate PTH release: A study of Bikram hot yoga. Complement. Ther. Med. 2020, 51, 102417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  221. Salvesen, H.; Johansson, A.G.; Foxdal, P.; Wide, L.; Piehl-Aulin, K.; Ljunghall, S. Intact serum parathyroid hormone levels increase during running exercise in well-trained men. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1994, 54, 256–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  222. Scott, J.P.R.; Sale, C.; Greeves, J.P.; Casey, A.; Dutton, J.; Fraser, W.D. The role of exercise intensity in the bone metabolic response to an acute bout of weight-bearing exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 2011, 110, 423–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  223. Scott, J.P.R.; Sale, C.; Greeves, J.P.; Casey, A.; Dutton, J.; Fraser, W.D. Treadmill running reduces parathyroid hormone concentrations during recovery compared with a nonexercising control group. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2014, 99, 1774–1782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  224. Sherk, V.D.; Wherry, S.J.; Barry, D.W.; Shea, K.L.; Wolfe, P.; Kohrt, W.M. Calcium supplementation attenuates disruptions in calcium homeostasis during exercise. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 2017, 49, 1437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  225. Takada, H.; Washino, K.; Hanai, T.; Iwata, H. Response of parathyroid hormone to exercise and bone mineral density in adolescent female athletes. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 1998, 2, 161–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  226. Thorsen, K.; Kristoffersson, A.; Hultdin, J.; Lorentzon, R. Effects of moderate endurance exercise on calcium, parathyroid hormone, and markers of bone metabolism in young women. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1997, 60, 16–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  227. Townsend, R.; Elliott-Sale, K.J.; Pinto, A.J.; Thomas, C.; Scott, J.P.R.; Currell, K.; Fraser, W.D.; Sale, C. Parathyroid hormone secretion is controlled by both ionized calcium and phosphate during exercise and recovery in men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2016, 101, 3231–3239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  228. Ljunghall, S.; Joborn, H.; Roxin, L.E.; Skarfors, E.T.; Wide, L.E.; Lithell, H.O. Increase in serum parathyroid hormone levels after prolonged physical exercise. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 1988, 20, 122–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  229. Diaz-Castro, J.; Mira-Rufino, P.J.; Moreno-Fernandez, J.; Chirosa, I.; Chirosa, J.L.; Guisado, R.; Ochoa, J.J. Ubiquinol supplementation modulates energy metabolism and bone turnover during high intensity exercise. Food Funct. 2020, 11, 7523–7531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  230. Malandish, A.; Tartibian, B.; Sheikhlou, Z.; Afsargharehbagh, R.; Rahmati, M. The effects of short-term moderate intensity aerobic exercise and long-term detraining on electrocardiogram indices and cardiac biomarkers in postmenopausal women. J. Electrocardiol. 2020, 60, 15–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  231. Tsai, K.S.; Lin, J.C.; Chen, C.K.; Cheng, W.C.; Yang, C.H. Effect of exercise and exogenous glucocorticoid on serum level of intact parathyroid hormone. Int. J. Sport. Med. 1997, 18, 583–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  232. Vora, N.M.; Kukreja, S.C.; York, P.A.J.; Bowser, E.N.; Hargis, G.K.; Williams, G.A. Effect of exercise on serum calcium and parathyroid hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1983, 57, 1067–1069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  233. D’Herbomez, M.; Caron, P.; Bauters, C.; Do Cao, C.; Schlienger, J.L.; Sapin, R.; Baldet, L.; Carnaille, B.; Wémeau, J.L. Reference range of serum calcitonin levels in humans: Influence of calcitonin assays, sex, age, and cigarette smoking. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2007, 157, 749–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  234. Gobba, N.A.E.K.; Hussein Ali, A.; El Sharawy, D.E.; Hussein, M.A. The potential hazardous effect of exposure to iron dust in Egyptian smoking and nonsmoking welders. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health 2017, 73, 189–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  235. Cvek, M.; Punda, A.; Brekalo, M.; PLoSnić, M.; Barić, A.; Kaličanin, D.; Brčić, L.; Vuletić, M.; Gunjača, I.; Torlak Lovrić, V.; et al. Presence or severity of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis does not influence basal calcitonin levels: Observations from CROHT biobank. J. Endocrinol. Investig. 2021, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  236. Sabia, R.; Wagner, M.; Susa, K.; Lemke, J.; Rothermund, L.; Henne-Bruns, D.; Hillenbrand, A. Calcitonin concentrations in patients with chronic kidney disease on hemodialysis in reference to parathyroidectomy. BMC Res. Notes 2019, 12, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  237. Pilat-Marcinkiewicz, B.; Brzóska, M.; Moniuszko-Jakoniuk, J. Thyroid and parathyroid function and structure in male rats chronically exposed to cadmium. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2008, 17, 113–120. [Google Scholar]
  238. Nogawa, K.; Kobayashi, E.; Yamada, Y.; Honda, R.; Kido, T.; Tsuritani, I.; Ishizaki, M. Parathyroid hormone concentration in the serum of people with cadmium-induced renal damage. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 1984, 54, 187–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  239. Tsuritani, I.; Honda, R.; Lshizaki, M.; Yamada, Y.; Kido, T.; Nogawa, K. Impairment of vitamin D metabolism due to environmental cadmium exposure, and possible relevance to sex-related differences in vulnerability to the bone damage. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1992, 37, 519–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  240. Jarup, L.; Persson, B.; Elinder, C.G. Decreased glomerular filtration rate in solderers exposed to cadmium. Occup. Environ. Med. 1995, 52, 818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  241. Nogawa, K.; Tsuritani, I.; Kido, T.; Honda, R.; Yamada, Y.; Ishizaki, M. Mechanism for bone disease found in inhabitants environmentally exposed to cadmium: Decreased serum 1 alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D level. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 1987, 59, 21–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  242. Malin Igra, A.; Vahter, M.; Raqib, R.; Kippler, M. Early-life cadmium exposure and bone-related biomarkers: A longitudinal study in children. Environ. Health Perspect. 2019, 127, 37003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  243. Brzóska, M.M.; Moniuszko-Jakoniuk, J. Bone metabolism of male rats chronically exposed to cadmium. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2005, 207, 195–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  244. Ahmed, S.; Rekha, R.S.; Ahsan, K.B.; Doi, M.; Grandér, M.; Roy, A.K.; Ekström, E.C.; Wagatsuma, Y.; Vahter, M.; Raqib, R. Arsenic exposure affects plasma insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in children in rural Bangladesh. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e81530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  245. Mazumdar, I.; Goswami, K.; Ali, M.S. Status of serum calcium, vitamin D and parathyroid hormone and hematological indices among lead exposed jewelry workers in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Indian J. Clin. Biochem. 2017, 32, 110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  246. McDiarmid, M.A.; Engelhardt, S.M.; Dorsey, C.D.; Oliver, M.; Gucer, P.; Gaitens, J.M.; Kane, R.; Cernich, A.; Kaup, B.; Hoover, D.; et al. Longitudinal health surveillance in a cohort of Gulf War veterans 18 years after first exposure to depleted uranium. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2011, 74, 678–691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  247. Yuan, G.; Lu, H.; Yin, Z.; Dai, S.; Jia, R.; Xu, J.; Song, X.; Li, L. Effects of mixed subchronic lead acetate and cadmium chloride on bone metabolism in rats. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med. 2014, 7, 1378. [Google Scholar]
  248. Zhu, M.; Zhou, W.; Bai, L.; Li, H.; Wang, L.; Zou, X. Dietary cadmium chloride supplementation impairs renal function and bone metabolism of laying hens. Animals 2019, 9, 998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  249. Suzuki, N.; Yamamoto, M.; Watanabe, K.; Kambegawa, A.; Hattori, A. Both mercury and cadmium directly influence calcium homeostasis resulting from the suppression of scale bone cells: The scale is a good model for the evaluation of heavy metals in bone metabolism. J. Bone Miner. Metab. 2004, 22, 439–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  250. Guo, Y.L.; Lin, C.J.; Yao, W.J.; Ryan, J.J.; Hsu, C.C. Musculoskeletal changes in children prenatally exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls and related compounds (Yu-Cheng children). J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1994, 41, 83–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  251. Di Nisio, A.; Rocca, M.S.; De Toni, L.; Sabovic, I.; Guidolin, D.; Dall’Acqua, S.; Acquasaliente, L.; De Filippis, V.; Plebani, M.; Foresta, C. Endocrine disruption of vitamin D activity by perfluoro-octanoic acid (PFOA). Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  252. Koroglu, B.K.; Ersoy, I.H.; Koroglu, M.; Balkarli, A.; Ersoy, S.; Varol, S.; Tamer, M.N. Serum parathyroid hormone levels in chronic endemic fluorosis. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2011, 143, 79–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  253. Skórka-Majewicz, M.; Goschorska, M.; Żwierełło, W.; Baranowska-Bosiacka, I.; Styburski, D.; Kapczuk, P.; Gutowska, I. Effect of fluoride on endocrine tissues and their secretory functions—Review. Chemosphere 2020, 260, 127565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  254. Ibrahim, M.A.A.; Elkaliny, H.H.; Abd-Elsalam, M.M. Lycopene ameliorates the effect of Aroclor 1254 on morphology, proliferation, and angiogenesis of the thyroid gland in rat. Toxicology 2021, 452, 152722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  255. Gore, A.C.; Chappell, V.A.; Fenton, S.E.; Flaws, J.A.; Nadal, A.; Prins, G.S.; Toppari, J.; Zoeller, R.T. EDC-2: The Endocrine Society’s second scientific statement on endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Endocr. Rev. 2015, 36, 1–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  256. Zeng, Q.b.; Xu, Y.y.; Yu, X.; Yang, J.; Hong, F.; Zhang, A. hua Arsenic may be involved in fluoride-induced bone toxicity through PTH/PKA/AP1 signaling pathway. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 37, 228–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  257. Engström, A.; Skerving, S.; Lidfeldt, J.; Burgaz, A.; Lundh, T.; Samsioe, G.; Vahter, M.; Åkesson, A. Cadmium-induced bone effect is not mediated via low serum 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D. Environ. Res. 2009, 109, 188–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  258. Ibrahim, K.S.; Beshir, S.; Shahy, E.M.; Shaheen, W.A. Effect of occupational cadmium exposure on parathyroid gland. Open Access Maced. J. Med. Sci. 2016, 4, 302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  259. Kido, T.; Honda, R.; Tsuritani, I.; Ishizaki, M.; Yamada, Y.; Nogawa, K.; Nakagawa, H.; Dohi, Y. Assessment of cadmium-induced osteopenia by measurement of serum bone Gla protein, parathyroid hormone, and 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1991, 11, 161–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  260. Lee, C.C.; Weng, C.H.; Huang, W.H.; Yen, T.H.; Lin, J.L.; Lin, D.T.; Chen, K.H.; Hsu, C.W. Association between blood cadmium levels and mortality in peritoneal dialysis. Medicine 2016, 95, e3717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  261. Ghosh-Narang, J.; Jones, T.M.; Menke, A.; Todd, A.C.; Muntner, P.; Batuman, V. Parathyroid hormone status does not influence blood and bone lead levels in dialysis patients. Am. J. Med. Sci. 2007, 334, 415–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  262. Kristal-Boneh, E.; Froom, P.; Yerushalmi, N.; Harari, G.; Ribak, J. Calcitropic hormones and occupational lead exposure. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998, 147, 458–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  263. Lin, J.L.; Lin-Tan, D.T.; Chen, K.H.; Hsu, C.W.; Yen, T.H.; Huang, W.H.; Huang, Y.L. Blood lead levels association with 18-month all-cause mortality in patients with chronic peritoneal dialysis. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2010, 25, 1627–1633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  264. Colleoni, N.; Arrigo, G.; Gandini, E.; Corigliano, C.; D’Amico, G. Blood lead in hemodialysis patients. Am. J. Nephrol. 1993, 13, 198–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  265. Osterloh, J.D. Observations on the effect of parathyroid hormone on environmental blood lead concentrations in humans. Environ. Res. 1991, 54, 8–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  266. Potula, V.; Henderson, A.; Kaye, W. Calcitropic hormones, bone turnover, and lead exposure among female smelter workers. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health 2005, 60, 195–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  267. Pouresmaeil, R.; Razeghi, E.; Ahmadi, F. Correlation of serum lead levels with inflammation, nutritional status, and clinical complications in hemodialysis patients. Ren. Fail. 2012, 34, 1114–1117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  268. McDiarmid, M.A.; Engelhardt, S.M.; Dorsey, C.D.; Oliver, M.; Gucer, P.; Wilson, P.D.; Kane, R.; Cernich, A.; Kaup, B.; Anderson, L.; et al. Surveillance results of depleted uranium-exposed Gulf War I veterans: Sixteen years of follow-up. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2009, 72, 14–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  269. Thippeswamy, H.M.; Devananda, D.; Nanditha Kumar, M.; Wormald, M.M.; Prashanth, S.N. The association of fluoride in drinking water with serum calcium, vitamin D and parathyroid hormone in pregnant women and newborn infants. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2020, 75, 151–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  270. Harari, F.; Åkesson, A.; Casimiro, E.; Lu, Y.; Vahter, M. Exposure to lithium through drinking water and calcium homeostasis during pregnancy: A longitudinal study. Environ. Res. 2016, 147, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Ijms 23 00044 g001 550
Figure 1. Environmental factors (lifestyle factors and pollutants) that affect PTH and calcitonin levels. As, arsenic; BMI, body mass index; Ca, calcium; Cd, cadmium; F, fluoride; Mg, magnesium; Pb, lead; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; PFAS, perfluoroalkyl substances; PTH, parathyroid hormone; Zn, zinc.
Figure 1. Environmental factors (lifestyle factors and pollutants) that affect PTH and calcitonin levels. As, arsenic; BMI, body mass index; Ca, calcium; Cd, cadmium; F, fluoride; Mg, magnesium; Pb, lead; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; PFAS, perfluoroalkyl substances; PTH, parathyroid hormone; Zn, zinc.
Ijms 23 00044 g001
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Babić Leko, M.; Pleić, N.; Gunjača, I.; Zemunik, T. Environmental Factors That Affect Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin Levels. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010044

AMA Style

Babić Leko M, Pleić N, Gunjača I, Zemunik T. Environmental Factors That Affect Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin Levels. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(1):44. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010044

Chicago/Turabian Style

Babić Leko, Mirjana, Nikolina Pleić, Ivana Gunjača, and Tatijana Zemunik. 2022. "Environmental Factors That Affect Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin Levels" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 1: 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010044

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop