The Emerging Role of Decellularized Plant-Based Scaffolds as a New Biomaterial
Abstract
:1. Vegetal Scaffolds Are New Players to the Broader Field of Tissue Engineering
2. Alternative Strategies to Current Chemical Decellularization Protocol
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- <50 ng dsDNA per mg extracellular matrix (ECM) dry weight;
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- <200 bp DNA fragment length;
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- Lack of visible nuclear material in tissue sections stained with DAPI or H&E.
3. Decellularized Vegetal Tissues Support Cell Culture
4. The Exploitation of the Inherent Vegetal Vein Network to Provide a Unique Vascularized Bioengineered Tissue Construct
5. Decellularized Plant Tissues Exhibit a Wide Range of Mechanical Properties Which Can Be Matched to a Human Anatomical Site
6. Natural Topographical Architecture Found in Plant Scaffolds Can Be Utilized to Direct Cell Behavior
7. Biocompatibility Demonstration and the First In Vivo Applications
8. Additional Considerations for Decellularized Plant-Based Biomaterials
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Decellularization Treatment | Compounds | Time | Decellularized Plants | Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical | SDS (0.1 to 10%, depending on plant material); Triton X-100; bleach (10%) Hexane pre- treatment can be performed when wax cuticle present | 12 h to 3 weeks, depending on the plant material | Amazon sword [55], Anthurium [35], Anthurium (queen) [35], Apple interior [24,32,33,53,56], Asparagus [56], Bamboo [31,35], Basil [55], Broccoli stem [52,56], Cabbage [57], Calathea zebrina [35], Carrot [52,56], Celery [53,56,58], Cucumber [56], Ficus hispida [59], Garcinia [59], Green onion [56,60], Impatiens capensis [35], Jujube [52], Leek [61], Lucky bamboo [55], Orchid pseudobulb [35], Pachira aquatica [59], Parsley stem [34,58], Peanut hairy root [34], Persimmon [52], Potato [56], Solenostemon “wasabi” [35], Spinach [34,54,55,58,60,62,63], Sweet yellow bell pepper [52], Sweet wormwood [34], summer lilac [35], tomato [55], Ubuçu Palm fibers [64], Vanilla [35] | Gold standard, well characterized; demonstrated ability to decellularize a multitude of plant materials with different structural and chemical compositions | Use of harsh chemicals; potential toxic residue thus, requires intense washing steps; time consuming; chemicals are environmentally toxic [46] |
Detergent-Free [59] | Heated bleach and NaHCO3 solutions or bleach with surfactant | Minutes to hours, depending on the plant material | Bamboo stem, Ficus hispida, Garcinia, Pachira aquatica | Oxidation may enhance cellulose breakdown | Strong chemicals; able to degrade scaffold when heated [59] |
Freeze/Enzymatic [65] | Lyophilization, DNAse I | 24 h | Transgenic plant cultured cell lines: Hairy root, Tobacco bright yellow (BY-2), Monocot rice cells (Oryza sativa L.) | Retains native proteins | Additional clearing with surfactant might be needed to remove debris [1] |
Supercritical Fluid (scCO2) [58] | scCO2 (2500 psi at 33 °C); PAA as cosolvent (2%); bleach if scaffold clearing required; Hexane pre- treatment can be performed when wax cuticle present | 3 h (+6 h if clearing required) | Celery, Parsley stem, Spinach leaf, Sweet mint leaf | Fast; use of soft approach with minimal amount of chemicals; sterilization step included | Needs to be characterized on a larger diversity of plants; specialized equipment required [58] |
Plant | Modification | Mechanical Properties | Technique |
---|---|---|---|
Apple hypanthium [32,53] | None | YM = 1.10 ± 0.10 kPa | Nano-indentation |
Collagen I | YM = 2.20 ± 0.20 kPa | ||
Glutaraldehyde | YM = 4.10 ± 0.30 kPa | ||
Poly-L-lysine (PLL) | YM = 4.33 ± 1.98 kPa EM = 4.17 ± 0.17 kPa Residual Strain = 6.42 ± 0.08% MS = 1.17 ± 0.28 kPa | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties | |
Amazon sword [55] | None | YM = 8.60 ± 0.70 kPa | Nano-indentation |
Aurora Borealis leaf [55] | None | YM = 1.70 ± 0.30 kPa | Nano-indentation |
Bamboo stem [31] | None | Compression = 1.52 ± 0.35 MPa | Measurement of bulk dynamic compression properties |
Oxidation (0.01% NaIO4) | Compression = 1.36 ± 0.47 MPa | ||
Oxidation (0.1% NaIO4) | Compression = 1.08 ± 0.20 MPa | ||
Oxidation (0.5% NaIO4) | Compression = 0.60 ± 0.05 MPa | ||
Basil plant leaf [55] | None | YM = 5.40 ± 2.60 kPa | Nano-indentation |
Carrot taproot [53] | None | EM = 43.43 ± 5.22 kPa MS = 44.31 ± 8.59 kPa | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties |
Celery stalk [53] | None | EM = 594.78 ± 94.24 kPa MS = 175.93 ± 40.96 kPa | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties |
Ficus hispida leaf [59] | None | MTM = 2.00 MPa Strain at Failure = 0.30% UTS = 0.50 MPa | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties |
Leek [61] | None | EM = 4.42 ± 0.50 kPa Tensile strength = 1.89 ± 0.25 MPa | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties |
APTES | EM = 1.31 ± 0.15 kPa TS = 2.45 ± 0.27 MPa | ||
OTS | EM = 0.54 ± 0.14 kPa TS = 1.08 ± 0.28 MPa | ||
GO | EM = 1.50 ± 0.07 kPa Tensile strength = 1.93 ± 0.10 MPa | ||
Lucky bamboo stem [55] | None | YM = 1.77 ± 1.20 MPa | Nano-indentation |
Pachira aquatica [59] | None | MTM = 2.00 MPa Strain at Failure = 0.30% UTS = 0.50 MPa | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties |
Spinach leaf [34,54,55,58] | None | MTM = 0.30 MPa UTS = ~0.05 MPa Strain at Failure = ~7.00% | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties |
None | Tensile testing = 1.40 MPa Strain at Failure = 4.57% | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties | |
None Collagen + Fibronectin | YM = 21.27 ± 0.6 kPa YM = 37.64 ± 2.3 kPa | Nano-indentation | |
None (scCO2 treated) | YM = 18.09 ± 7.14 kPa | Nano-indentation | |
Tomato plant leaf [55] | None | YM = 10.70 ± 4.40 kPa | Nano-indentation |
Ubuçu Palm fibers [64] | None | YM = 3.10 ± 1.04 GPa UTS = 33.96 ± 30.45 MPa Strain at Failure = 5.71 ± 2.4% | Measurement of bulk dynamic tensile properties |
Alkali treatment | YM = 8.22 ± 4.86 GPa UTS = 72.38 ± 45.19 MPa Strain at Failure = 2.80 ± 1.52% | ||
Alkali treatment + autoclaved | YM = 3.10 ± 1.04 GPa UTS = 33.96 ± 30.45 MPa Strain at Failure = 5.71 ± 2.4% |
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Harris, A.F.; Lacombe, J.; Zenhausern, F. The Emerging Role of Decellularized Plant-Based Scaffolds as a New Biomaterial. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 12347. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212347
Harris AF, Lacombe J, Zenhausern F. The Emerging Role of Decellularized Plant-Based Scaffolds as a New Biomaterial. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(22):12347. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212347
Chicago/Turabian StyleHarris, Ashlee F., Jerome Lacombe, and Frederic Zenhausern. 2021. "The Emerging Role of Decellularized Plant-Based Scaffolds as a New Biomaterial" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 22: 12347. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212347