Metal (Mo, W, Ti) Carbide Catalysts: Synthesis and Application as Alternative Catalysts for Dry Reforming of Hydrocarbons—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Metal Carbides
2.1. Tungsten Carbide
2.2. Molybdenum Carbide
2.3. Titanium Carbide
3. Synthesis of Metal Carbides
3.1. Reactive Sintering and Temperature-Programmed Reduction (TPR)
3.2. High-Energy Mechanical ball Milling Technique
3.3. Structure-Directing Methods
3.4. Molten Salt Synthesis
4. MAX Matrices and MXenes
4.1. Synthesis of MAX Matrices
4.2. Synthesis of MXenes
4.3. Modification of MXenes with Other Compounds
5. The Use of Metal Carbides for Dry Reforming
5.1. Tungsten Carbide
5.2. WC Combined with Nickel and Cobalt Particles
5.3. Molybdenum Carbide
5.4. Molybdenum Carbide Modified with Nickel Particles
5.5. MAX and MXenes for Dry Reforming of Hydrocarbons
6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Process | Main Reaction | Enthalpy ΔH0298 K [kJ/mol] | Pressure [bar] | H2/CO Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dry reforming of methane (DRM) | CH4 + CO2 = 2CO + 3 H2 | +247 | 1 | 1:1 |
Steam reforming of methane (STM) | CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2O | +206 | 3–25 | 3:1 |
Partial oxidation of methane (POM) | CH4 + ½ O2 = CO + 2H2 | −35.2 | 100 | 2:1 |
Autothermal reforming (ATR) | CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2O CH4 + ½ O2 = CO + 2H2 | +206 −35.2 | 1–50 | 1:1 or 1:2 |
Type of Mill (Balls and Vessel) | Substrates | Ball-to-Powder Weight Ratio | Rotation Speed | Inert Gas Atmosphere | Milling Time | Additional Process Stage | Characteristics of Obtained Particles | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| powder mixture (99.9% purity) of W and amorphous C in a stoichiometric amount (6.12 wt.% C) | 10:1 | 300 rpm | Ar | 8 h 12 h | - |
| [62] |
| powder mixture of WO3 (99.9% purity, ~20 µm) and graphite (99.9% purity, ~1.7 µm) | 40:1 | 250 rpm | - | 20 h |
|
| [13] |
| powder mixture of WO3 (>99% purity), Mg (99.9% purity), and graphite (99.9% purity) at atomic ratio of 1:1:1 | 20:1 to 50:1 | 250 rpm | H2/Ar | 50 h | - |
| [102] |
| powder mixture (99.9% purity) of W (−75 mesh) and C (−350 mesh) | 10:1 | n.d. | Ar | 71 h 120 h | - |
| [103] |
| powder mixture (8 g) of W (99% purity, mean particle size ~5 µm) and granulated activated carbon (particle size ~0.9–1.7 mm) in the atomic ratio 50:50 | 30:1 | n.d. | - | 310 h |
|
| [104] |
Type of Mill (Balls and Vessel) | Substrates | Ball-to-Powder Weight Ratio | Rotation Speed | Inert Gas Atmosphere | Milling Time | Additional Process Stage | Characteristics of Obtained Particles | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| 20:1 | n.d. | Ar | 10 min | Pressureless sintering in a hot press: The mechanically activated mixture was loaded into a die. The die was set into a hot-pressing plant. P = 1 MPa, T = 900 and 1000°C, t = 30 min, argon atmosphere. |
| [88] |
|
| 40:1 | n.d. | Ar | 30 h | - |
| [97] |
|
| 10:1 | n.d. | Ar | 15, 20 h | - |
| [98] |
|
| 10:1 | 300 rpm | Ar | 8, 16 h | Using stearic acid as a PCA (process-control agent) during milling to prevent sticking of the powder to the balls and vial. |
| [105] |
|
| n.d. | n.d. | He | 60, 82, 96 h | - |
| [51] |
Type of Mill (Balls and Vessel) | Substrates | Ball-to-Powder Weight Ratio | Rotation Speed | Inert Gas Atmosphere | Milling Time | Additional Process Stage | Characteristics of Obtained Particles | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Planetary mill with stainless-steel vials and balls | MoO3, Al, graphite at different molar ratios | 20:1 | 300 rpm | Ar | 2–150 h | Annealing after the milling under air or Ar atmosphere |
| [96] |
Planetary mill with stainless-steel vials and balls | MoO3, graphite | 15:1 | 450 rpm | Ar | 5, 10, 15 and 24 h | Pressing at 4–0 MPa, heating, and microwave irradiation (800 W, 60 s). After microwave treatment, annealing at 700 °C and 1000 °C for 30 min |
| [106] |
Planetary mill with stainless-steel vials and balls | MoS2, graphite, Na2CO3 | 15:1 | n.d. | Ar | 10, 20, 40, 50, and 70 h | - |
| [100] |
Planetary ball mill | Graphite, Mo powder, melamine | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | DC arc discharge plasma sintering |
| [101] |
High-energy planetary mill with stainless-steel balls (10 mm) | Carbon black P145 (18–25 nm), (NH4)6Mo7O24x 4H2O | 40:1 | 600–1000 m/s2 | yes | 30–60 min | Calcination at 760 °C and 800 °C in inert atmosphere |
| [99] |
Precursors | Preparation of the Precursor Mixture | Carbothermal Reduction | Characteristics of Obtained Particles | Ref. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type of Furnace | Flowing Gas | Temperature and Heating Rate | Time | ||||
|
| vacuum coal tube furnace (3.8 × 10−2 Pa) | - | 1000 °C 7–10 °C/min | 2 h |
| [61] |
|
| vacuum tube furnace | - | 980 °C 10 °C/min | 1 h |
| [68] |
|
| tube furnace | H2/N2 (VH2/VN2 1:3, 50 mL/min) | 900 °C | 3 h |
| [129] |
|
| tube furnace | N2 | 800 °C | 2 h |
| [130] |
|
| tube furnace | Ar H2/Ar (4% vol. H2, 96% vol. Ar) | 1300 °C 3.3 °C/min | 2 h (400 °C) 0.5 h (1300 °C) |
| [131] |
|
| tube furnace | - | 1000 °C 40 °C/min | 10 h |
| [132] |
|
| horizontal fixed bed alumina reactor | CH4/H2 (95% H2, 5% CH4, 20 l/h) | 850 °C (APT) 820 °C (TBO) 5 °C/min | 2 h |
| [133] |
|
| alumina tube furnace | N2 (283.17 l/h) | 1300 °C 5 °C/min (holding at 300 °C for 30 min to remove excess O2) | 3 h |
| [134] |
|
| vacuum furnace (shape memory synthesis) | - | 1300 °C 1200 °C | 7 h 30 h |
| [135] |
|
| vacuum furnace (4 Ñ 10−1 Pa) | - | 1100–1200 °C 10 °C/min | 3 h |
| [136] |
Substrates for Organic–Inorganic Precursor Preparation | Preparation of the Precursor | Carbothermal Reduction | Characteristics of Obtained Particles | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flowing Gas | Temperature | Time | ||||
|
| N2 | 700 °C, 800 °C, and 900 °C | - |
| [115] |
|
| N2 | 900 °C | - |
| [114] |
|
| N2 | 800 °C | 3 h |
| [118] |
|
| N2 | 900 °C | 2 h |
| [117] |
|
| Ar | 650, 750, 850, and 950 °C | 3 h |
| [121] |
|
| Inert | 600 °C, 700 °C, 800 °C, 900 °C | - |
| [112] |
|
| n.d. | 800°C | 2 h |
| [137] |
|
After carburization step, removal of copper particles by washing with iron chloride solution. | N2 | 800°C | 6 h |
| [120] |
| Method I:
| N2 | 1st step: 200 °C for 12 h, 2nd step: heating to carburization temperature under inert gas, 3rd step: heating under 20% CH4/H2 | 3 h | - | [138] |
|
| Ar | 625 °C, 725 °C, 750 °C | 5 h |
| [139] |
Ti Source | C Source | Salts | Salt:Ti Molar Ratio | Temperature | Time | Characteristic of Obtained Product | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ti powder: fine particles (1–3 μm) and large irregular particles (20–40 μm) |
| LiCl-KCl-KF | n.d. | 1100 °C (10 °C/min, 5 °C/min from 600 °C) | 6 h |
| [154] |
Ti powder (99% purity) |
| KCl-LiCl | 9:1 (salt:reactants mass ratio) C:Ti molar ratio of 2:1 | 700, 815, 880, 950 °C | 2, 3, 4 h |
| [157] |
Ti powder (99.9% purity) with the diameter of 100–150 μm |
| KCl-KF | 2:1, 3:1, 4:1 | 700–1000 °C | 3, 5 h |
| [155] |
Ti powder (99.8% purity) with the size of 325 mesh |
| NaCl-KCl | 7:1 (salt:reactants mass ratio) 1.5 g of 1:1 Ti:C mixture | 750, 800, 850, 900 °C | 1, 2, 3, 4 h |
| [156] |
Ti powder (99.5% purity) with the size of 200 mesh |
| LiCl-KCl-KF | 1.5:1, 2.5:1 | 900 and 950 °C | 1–5 h |
| [158] |
Mo and C Source | Salts | Ratio of MS Components | Temperature | Time | Electrochemical Reaction Parameters | Characteristics of Obtained Product | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mo and C powders (200 mesh) | NaCl and KCl | equimolar | 1000°C | 1 h | - |
| [148] |
MoS2, graphite powder | NaCl and KCl | equimolar | 1st step: 800 °C, 2nd step: 700 °C | 2 h 10 min | Cell voltage 2.6 V |
| [159] |
Mo foil, CO2 | CaCl2, CaO | CaO:CaCl2 = 1:10 | 850 °C | 5 h | Voltage 2.5 V |
| [152] |
Mo plate CO2 | LiCO3 | - | 800 °C | 1 h 2 h | Cell voltage 3.1 V |
| [151] |
MoO3 CFP-carbon fiber paper, carbon black | NaCl, KCl | equimolar | 1000 °C | 3 h 6 h 9 h | - |
| [150] |
Mo powder, carbon nanotubes | LiCl, KCl, KF | mole ratio: 58/40/2 | 950 °C | 1 h |
| [160] |
MAX Matrix, Synthesis Method | Substrates | Ratio of Substrates | Preliminary Preparation of Substrates for Synthesis | Temperature and Time of Solid-State Synthesis | Comments | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mo2Ga2C Reactive sintering | Molybdenum and graphite powders, gallium shots | Mo:C molar ratio = 2: 1 Mo2C:Ga molar ratio = 1:8 | Ball milling of Mo and C powders for 24 h, grinding formed Mo2C with gallium | 850 °C for 48 h | 20% contamination of Mo2Ga2C phase with unreacted Mo2C, Ga, or Ga2O3 | [173] |
Mo3Al2C Reactive sintering | Elemental powders of particular constituents | n.d. | n.d. | 24 h at 1500 °C with one intermediate grinding and compacting step, followed by ball milling and hot pressing at 1250 °C and at 56 MPa | Obtained MAX revealed unconventional superconductivity with possibly a nodal structure of the superconducting gap | [183] |
Mo4ValC4 Reactive sintering | Molybdenum (250 mesh), vanadium (325 mesh), vanadium (III) oxide, aluminum (325 mesh), and graphite (325 mesh) powders | Mo:V:V2O3:Al:C = 4:0.9:0.05:1.2:3.5 | Grinding and pestling in agate mortar for 5 min | 1650 °C for 4 h under argon atmosphere | The synthesized MAX phase contained impurities of intermetallic and oxide compounds. They were removed by dissolution in 12 M HCl. | [176] |
Mo2TiAlC2 Mo2Ti2AlC3 Reactive sintering | Elemental powders: Mo (325 mesh), Ti (325 mesh), and Al (300 mesh) | mMo:(3-m) Ti:1.1Al:2C, where m = 1.5, 1.8. 2, or 2.2. | Ball milling for 18 h | 1600 °C for 4 under Ar flow | The different ratios of starting materials led to formation of different major phases: m ≥ 2 led to (Mo2Ti)AlC2; for m < 2, (Mo2Ti2)AlC3 was the major product | [172] |
(Mo2/3Sc1/3)2AlC Reactive sintering | Elemental powders: graphite, Mo, Al, and Sc | Stoichiometric ratio | Mixing in agate mortar | 1500 °C for 20 h under Ar flow | - | [166] |
(W,Ti)4C4-x, x = 1.4 Reactive sintering | Powders of W, Ti, Al, and C | Molar ratio of W:Ti:Al:C = 2:1:1.1:2 | n.d. | 1600 °C for 4 h | Actual composition ≈ W2.1(1)Ti1.6(1)C2.6(1) | [188] |
(W2/3Sc1/3)2AlC (W2/3Y1/3)2AlC Reactive sintering | Elemental powders of W (12 µm), Sc (−200 mesh), Y (40 mesh), Al, and C (−200 mesh) | Stoichiometric ratio | n.d. | 1450 °C for 2 h under Ar flow | (W2/3Sc1/3)2AlC sample contained 43 wt.% of (W2/3Sc1/3)2AlC and 31 wt.% of unreacted W | [165] |
Ti2AlC Hot pressing | TiC (11.8 um), aluminum (11.8 um), active carbon (13.2 um), Ti (10.6 um) | TiC:Ti:Al:C: = 0.5:1.5:1.0:0.5 | Mixing in ethanol for 24 h, pressing at high temperatures (1300 °C, 1400 °C, 1450 °C, and 1500 °C) at 30 Mpa under Ar flow | Sintering at pressing temperature: 1300 °C, 1400 °C, 1450 °C, or 1500 °C, the soaking time: 60 min | The main identified phase was Ti2AlC; however, with temperature increase (more than 1450 °C), Ti3AlC2 phase became more significant. Intermetallic impurities of Ti-Al were also detected. | [171] |
Ti3AlC2 Ti3SiC2 Spark plasma sintering (SPS) | Ti (10.6 um), Si (9.5 um), Al (12.8 um), and TiC (8.4 um) | n.d. | Mixing in ethanol for 24 h | Spark plasma sintering 1150–1300 °C, the soaking time 8 min | High-purity Ti3AlC2 can be obtained at temperatures 1200–1250 °C and molar ratio of TiC:Ti:Al:Si = 2:1:1:0.2 | [170] |
Ti2AlC, Ti3AlC2 Molten salt synthesis method | Ti powder (74 um), aluminum (44–420 um), graphite (44 um), sodium chloride, potassium chloride (eutectic phase) | Molar ratio for Ti2AlC preparation: Ti:Al:C = 2:1.2:1, for Ti3AlC2: Ti:Al:C = 3:1.2:2. The salt-to-MAX constituents weight ratio: 1:1 | Ball milling (1800 rpm) in heptane to prevent dissolution of salts by adsorbed water fallowed by drying at 95 °C for 8 h and pressing at 140 MPa to form disks | For Ti2AlC from 900 to 1000 °C, the reaction time: 2 h; for Ti3AlC2 1300 °C, reaction time 2 h | The excess of Al element was required due to its volatility. Formation of MAX phase in shape of globular and long needles. | [189] |
Type of Catalyst | Catalyst Properties | Catalyst Synthesis Method | Dry Methane Reforming | Ref. | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Catalyst Mass | Temperature | Pressure | Time | WHSV/ GHSV | CH4 /CO2 Ratio | CO2 Conversion | CH4 Conversion | CO Yield | H2/CO Ratio | ||||
WC | n.d. |
| 3 g | 850 °C | 0.5 MPa | 500 h | 4000–12,000 h−1 | 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.4 | 85% 89% 93% 100% 100% | 92.5% 88% 82% 78% 76% | 83% 90% 92% 86% 79% | 0.61 0.69 0.79 0.85 1.03 | [199] |
α-WC/γAl2O3 | nanorods |
| 0.2 g | 900 °C | 1 atm | 5000 TON1) | n.d. | 1 | 55% | 45% | 48% | n.d. | [196] |
β-W2C/γAl2O3 | nanoparticles | 81% | 90% | 76% | n.d. | ||||||||
α-WC/W2C | 39 m2/g (CH4), 71 m2/g (C2H6) |
| n.d. | 850 °C | 1 bar 8.3 bar | 8 h 140 h | 2870 h−1 | 1 | 93.1% 75.4% | 92% 62.7% | 92.6% 68.6% | 0.94 0.79 | [210] |
WC | 20.6 m2/g d = 80 nm |
| 1.066 g | 900 °C 950 °C 970 °C | n.d. | 50 h | n.d. | 1 | 61.0% 79.6% 82.8% | 28.4% 57.6% 62.2% | n.d. | 0.43 0.69 0.71 | [211] |
WC | d = 18 nm |
| 1.2 g | 843 °C 950 °C | 0.867 bar | 60 h | n.d. | 1 | n.d. | 34% 55% | n.d. | 1.22 1.48 | [212] |
Co6W6C | 2–3 m2/g |
| 0.3 g | 850 °C | 3.4 atm | 100 h | n.d. | 1 | 70% | 75% | 61% | 0.91 | [205] |
Co6W6C | 5 m2/g, particle size < 38 μm |
| 0.3 g | 850 °C | 5 atm | 20 h 90 h | 11,200 cm3/h/gcat | 1 | 78% 78% | 82% 81% | 76% | 1.01 0.99 | [213] |
Co-βW2C/α-WC | 438.1 m2/g, 0.58 cm3/g |
| 2 g | 800 °C | 1 atm | 1 h 10 h | 36,000–72,000 cm3/h/gcat | 1 | 90% 78% | 82% 69% | n.d. | 0.86 0.69 | [214] |
Ni-WC | 25 m2/g, 0.09 cm3/g |
| n.d. | 800 °C | 1 atm | 20 h | n.d. | 0.67 1.00 1.50 | 75% 85% 85% | 99% 75% 59% | 80%2) 83%2) 83%2) | 0.68 0.79 0.80 | [209] |
Ni-WCx | Ni/W = 0.5 NiW = 4 |
| 0.2 g | 800 °C | 1 atm | 18,000 cm3/h/gcat | 1 | 71% 68% | 58% 55% | n.d. | 0.69 0.68 | [198] |
Type of Catalyst | Mo/C Ratio | Catalyst Synthesis Method | Dry Methane Reforming | Ref. | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature | Pressure | WHSV/ GHSV [mlg−1h−1] | Sample | CO2 Conversion [%] | CH4 Conversion [%] | TOS | H2/CO Ratio | ||||||
CO20 | CO2 | CH40 | CH4 | ||||||||||
β-Mo2C | 0 5 10 15 30 60 100 wt.% |
| 850 °C | atm | 18,000 | 0 5 10 15 30 60 100 | 90 90 n.d. 90 90 90 5 | 25 15 n.d. 25 25 25 5 | 80 85 n.d. 85 85 85 5 | 15 10 n.d 15. 10 10 5 | 4 h 5 h n.d. 6 h 14 h 6h 6 h | n.d. | [79] |
Mo2C | Ascorbic acid/Mo = 1.0 |
| 650 °C 725 °C 775 °C 825 °C 850 °C | n.d. | 30 | Mo2C | 20 30 70 70 75 | 10 15 35 85 90 | n.d. | 0.1 0.2 0.35 0.6 0.6 | [123] | ||
β-Mo2C α-MoC1-x | n.d. |
| 850 °C | atm | 6000 | IE(Ar) IWI(Ar) MM(Ar) IE(H2) | 95 95 64 80 | 95 30 35 25 | 98 95 55 68 | 98 25 23 17 | 12 h 12 h 4 h 4 h | n.d n.d. n.d. n.d. | [78] |
Mo2C/Al2O3 | 5 wt.% Mo, 12.5 wt.% Mo 20 wt.% |
| 650 °C 750 °C 800 °C | atm | 18,000 | 5Mo 12.5Mo 20Mo | 18 20 25 | 20 25 30 | 12 h 12 h 12 h | 0.6 0.65 0.6 | [216] | ||
5Mo 12.5Mo 20Mo | 55 65 60 | 50 60 60 | 12 h 12 h 12 h | 0.65 0.7 0.72 | |||||||||
5Mo 12.5Mo 20Mo | 85 95 93 | 85 90 90 | 12 h 12 h 12 h | 0.82 0.85 0.8 | |||||||||
Mo2C (me) Mo2C (et) Mo2C/TiO2 |
| 850 °C | n.d. | 5040 | Mo2C (me) Mo2C (et) Mo2C/TiO2 | 99.8 99.9 88.7 | 92.1 89.5 70.1 | n.d. | 1.0 1.1 0.9 | [229] |
Type of Catalyst | Mo, Ni, and C Contents/ Ratio | Catalyst Synthesis Method | Dry Methane Reforming | Ref. | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature | Pressure | WHSV/ GHSV [mlg−1h−1] | Sample | CO2 Conversion [%] | CH4 Conversion [%] | TOS | H2/CO Ratio | ||||||
CO20 | CO2 | CH40 | CH4 | ||||||||||
Ni-Mo2C/MgO | Ni+Mo:β-cyclodextrin = 60:1, Ni: 7 wt.%, Mo: 15 wt.% |
| 850 °C | 1 atm | 30,000 | Ni-Mo2C/MgO | 95 | 95 | 95 | 90 | 200 h | n.d. | [228] |
Ni/Mo2C/CNT | Ni:Mo = 0.5 (0.5Ni) NI:Mo = 1.0 (1Ni) Ni:Mo = 1.5 (1.5Ni) Ni:Mo = 2.0 (2Ni) |
| 850 °C | 1 atm | 60,000 | 0.5Ni 1Ni 1.5Ni 2Ni | 85 80 85 85 | 65 70 25 40 | 70 70 75 70 | 65 65 10 30 | 22 h 36 h 5 h 8 h | n.d. | [222] |
Ni-Mo2C/La2O3 | Ni: 4.4 wt.% Mo 14.6 wt.%, Ni:Mo = 1:2 |
| 800 °C | 1 atm | 12,000 18,000 | Ni-Mo2C/La2O3 | 70 | 80 | 50 | 60 | 50 h | n.d. | [224] |
Ni-Mo2C | Ni:Mo = 0 Ni:Mo = 1 Ni:Mo = 2 Ni:Mo = 3 |
| 800 °C | 1 atm | Ni:Mo = 0 Ni:Mo = 1 Ni:Mo = 2 Ni:Mo = 3 | 0 95 92 8 | 0 70 90 0 | 0 80 80 40 | 0 30 80 15 | 6 h 9 h 22 h | 0 0.5 0.52 0.15 | [47] | |
Ni-Mo2C/Al2O3 | Al.:urea = 1:2.5 nStarch:nAl. Salt: 0.125 n(Ni+Mo) = 1.5 Ni content: 15 mol.% Mo content: 0. 3. 5 and 10 mol.% |
| 800°C | 1 at | 12,000 | 0Mo 3Mo 5Mo 10Mo | 89 92 92 94 | 89 93 94 90 | 84 87 90 85 | 84 87 88 84 | 15 h 15 h 15 h 15 | 0.99 0.97 0.99 0.99 | [116] |
Mo2C-Ni/Al2O3 | Ni:Mo = 2:1 Ni:Mo = 1:2 Ni:Mo = 1:5 |
| 480 °C Plasma treatment | 1 atm | 50,000 | Ni:Mo = 2:1 Ni:Mo = 1:2 Ni:Mo = 1:5 | 85 7 605 | 80 75 60 | 80 75 61 | 80 75 61 | 11 h n.d. n.d. | 0.9 n.d n.d. | [227] |
Ni/MoCx/SiO2Ni/MoCx/Al2O3Ni/MoCx/SiC | 20% mol. of Mo, Ni: Mo = 0.2 (0.2NiMo/support) 0.3 (0.3NiMo/support) and 0.4 (0.4NiMo/support) |
| 800 °C | 1 atm | 10,000 | 0.2NiMo/SiC 0.3NiMo/SiC 0.4NiMo/SiC | 90 90 90 | 85 85 85 | 85 85 85 | 75 75 75 | 0.8 0.8 0.8 | 20 h | [10] |
0.2NiMo/SiO2 0.3NiMo/SiO2 0.4NiMo/SiO2 | 25 25 75 | 25 25 90 | 13 13 65 | 13 13 75 | 0.25 0.25 0.75 | ||||||||
0.2NiMo/Al2O3 0.3NiMo/Al2O3 0.4NiMo/Al2O3 | 25 95 95 | 12 95 95 | 12 80 80 | 5 80 80 | 0.25 0.8 0.8 |
Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
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Reactive sintering |
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TPC, TPR |
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High-energy milling |
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Structure-directing method |
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Molten salt synthesis |
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Czaplicka, N.; Rogala, A.; Wysocka, I. Metal (Mo, W, Ti) Carbide Catalysts: Synthesis and Application as Alternative Catalysts for Dry Reforming of Hydrocarbons—A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 12337. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212337
Czaplicka N, Rogala A, Wysocka I. Metal (Mo, W, Ti) Carbide Catalysts: Synthesis and Application as Alternative Catalysts for Dry Reforming of Hydrocarbons—A Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(22):12337. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212337
Chicago/Turabian StyleCzaplicka, Natalia, Andrzej Rogala, and Izabela Wysocka. 2021. "Metal (Mo, W, Ti) Carbide Catalysts: Synthesis and Application as Alternative Catalysts for Dry Reforming of Hydrocarbons—A Review" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 22: 12337. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212337