1. Introduction
Fungi of
Fusarium species are responsible for numerous diseases in wheat and other small grain cereals cultivated worldwide.
Fusarium culmorum (Wm.G. Sm.) Sacc. is a threat to plants at every stage of their development. The infection evoked by this pathogen is a serious problem in cereal agriculture. The most common symptoms of Fusarium wilt in wheat include Fusarium seedling blight (FSB), root rot, and Fusarium head blight (FHB). These symptoms have especially disadvantageous effects on plant growth, development, grain yield, and its quality [
1,
2,
3]. The yield reduction is an outcome of damaged kernels which appear discolored and shriveled.
Fusarium culmorum belongs to the fungi producing numerous dangerous toxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON) (
Figure 1A), nivalenol (NIV) (
Figure 1B), T-2 toxin (
Figure 1C), and zearalenone (ZEN) (
Figure 1D). These mycotoxins represent the trichothecenes family, i.e., epoxy-sesquiterpenoid metabolites responsible for pathogenic virulence and protein synthesis [
4,
5]. Food products and fodder contaminated with secondary metabolites of
F. culmorum may evoke severe and chronic harm to human and domestic animal health [
6,
7,
8]. In the food industry, grain infected with
Fusarium, in which the level of mycotoxins exceeds the permissible EU standards, must be discarded. The maximum limit of toxins are: 750 µg·kg
−1 DON and 75 µg·kg
−1 ZEN in flour, and 500 µg·kg
−1 DON and 50 µg·kg
−1 ZEN in bread. The toxin levels are also established for feed production at 900 µg·kg
−1 DON for pigs and 100 µg·kg
−1 ZEN for piglets [
9,
10].
Resistance to
Fusarium head blight is a complex, quantitative trait. Several types (mechanisms) of resistance were identified, and they were described as: Type I—resistance to an initial infection; type II—resistance to the pathogen spread within the host; type III—kernel damage; type IV—tolerance to trichothecene toxins; type V—resistance to toxin accumulation [
11,
12]. In response to the presence of the pathogen, the host plant activates defense processes, e.g., alters the production of some biochemical components, such as soluble sugars, phenolic compounds, hormones, or reactive oxygen species (ROS) [
13]. Sugars play a pivotal role in the immune processes, especially in pathogen attacks, by initiating a signal transduction pathway and regulating the osmotic potential [
14,
15,
16]. Increased concentration of phenolic compounds is toxic to pathogens and prevents further infection. Phenolics are involved in the lignification of the cell wall, which increases the structural barrier that hinders the spread of the pathogen within the host plant tissue. The lignification may reduce the transfer of nutrients from the host plant cell to the pathogen [
17]. Due to their toxic nature, phenolic compounds, such as phytoalexins, are considered activators of pathogen resistance genes and modulators of pathogen toxicity [
18]. Another way to prevent pathogen infection is a mechanism that involves the production of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, and scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [
19]. The ROS includes non-radical molecules, such as hydrogen peroxide (H
2O
2) and singlet oxygen (
1O
2), as well as free radicals, such as superoxide anion (O
2• −) and hydroxyl radical (OH
•) [
20]. Reactive oxygen species can perform three functions: They can act as cell-damaging agents, signal transduction molecules, and can provide protection against pathogenic microbes [
21]. Excessive production of ROS is often called an oxidative burst. Overproduction of ROS can lead to protein and chlorophyll oxidation, damage to nucleic acids, lipid peroxidation, or initiation of programmed cell death [
22,
23]. Reactive oxygen species accumulation is counteracted by the activation of enzymatic antioxidants, such as catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and non-enzymatic antioxidants, such as low molecular weight (LMW) phenolics and carotenoids [
21,
24,
25]. Catalase is responsible for the decomposition of H
2O
2 into H
2O and O
2, as well as for the regulation of H
2O
2 concentration in plant tissues. This enzyme is involved in plant development, but also plays an important role in plant resistance to pathogens and aging processes [
26]. Peroxidases have a similar function to CAT, as they are involved in scavenging ROS in response to pathogen-plant interactions. In addition, POXs are responsible for the oxidation of phenolics, making them more toxic towards pathogens, lignin biosynthesis, suberization, and growth of the plant cell walls [
27]. Superoxide dismutase plays an equally pivotal role in maintaining redox balance and defense response in plants exposed to stress. Its task is to catalyze the dismutation of O
2•− and HO
2• (hydroperoxide radical) to H
2O
2 and H
2O. Superoxide dismutase is the first line of defense against a pathogen attack and protects plants from oxidative stress [
28]. Hydrogen peroxide also plays a significant role in pathogen defense. Thanks to its antimicrobial properties, it can induce local and systemic resistance to pathogen infection in plants [
29].
Pathogen presence can also affect the level of chlorophyll pigments and their activity, resulting in altered efficiency of photosystem II (PS II) [
30]. Similar observations were reported by other authors examining the photosynthetic pigment content after
F. culmorum infection in tomato [
31] and barley [
32]. The investigated pathogen predominates in cooler areas of northern, central, and western Europe, and it infects wheat, barley, and oats [
33]. Grain of durum wheat (
Triticum turgidum L. subsp.
durum (Desf.) Husn.) is used primarily in the production of pasta and to a lesser extent in the production of bread and groats. Although, durum wheat originates from the Mediterranean region and the countries of the Middle East is also very sensitive to
F. culmorum [
34]. Recent years have brought increased interest in durum wheat cultivation in Poland. Major problems with this crop include its high sensitivity to drought, soil salinity, cadmium accumulation, and
Fusarium infections [
34,
35,
36,
37]. Durum wheat, as compared with common wheat (
T. aestivum), is characterized by higher sensitivity to
Fusarium infection. This is attributed to its morphological traits, such as early flowering, longer awn, another retention inside the floret, spike compactness, and genetic differences, such as the presence of type I rather than type II resistance genes [
38,
39].
In the presented study, three durum wheat accessions were assessed in terms of resistance to
Fusarium diseases at two stages of their ontogenesis: Two-week-old seedlings and full anthesis stage—65 BBCH scale [
40]. The defense response of the studied durum genotypes included evaluation of the resistance degree in the seedlings by means of visual inspection of the leaves and roots, and fresh weight measurements. We also determined the content of total soluble carbohydrates, total soluble phenolics and cell wall-bound phenolics, chlorophyll pigments, hydrogen peroxide, and antioxidant enzymes activity. At the full anthesis stage, we visually evaluated the resistance to
Fusarium head blight, and measured the content of mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T–2 toxin, and zearalenone), and yield parameters. The main objective of the study was to identify physiological or biochemical markers of resistance to
F. culmorum at both developmental stages in three durum wheat accessions. The investigation was carried out on Polish line SMH87 and two Australian accessions: cv. ‘Tamaroi’ and BC
5Nax
2 line. The selected genotypes differed in the degree of resistance to salinity and were the subject of our earlier studies on cadmium accumulation in the grain of durum wheat [
36,
37].
3. Discussion
Fusarium culmorum attacks plants at various developmental stages. The pathogenesis is responsible for the formation of seedling blight and root rot, which limit seedling emergence and plant development [
32]. In our experiment, the infection caused a darkening of the roots and slower leaf growth. The studied genotypes differed more in the degree of leaf than root infestation. SMH87 line was the most, and BC
5Nax
2the least heavily infested. Medium infestation degree was observed in cv. ‘Tamaroi’. This result was surprising, since the genotypes originating from a much warmer and drier climate were less severely infected than the original genotype from Poland. The infection degree was visible in leaf FW loss: BC
5Nax
2 genotype did not show changes in fresh leaf weight, while the decrease in root weight, although significant, was the smallest among the studied genotypes. Similar results were obtained by Grey and Mathre [
41] in barley, by Wojciechowski et al. [
42] in winter wheat, and by Warzecha et al. [
43] in oats. These authors suggest that the most severe damage caused by
Fusarium seedling blight appeared in the roots. It indicates that visual evaluation of root infestation may be more useful than leaf assessment. According to Malalaseker et al. [
44] and Knudsen et al. [
45], root rot may also develop, due to a prior infestation of hypocotyls and shoots. Root infection negatively affects proper plant development and disturbs basic physiological processes, such as distribution of assimilates, water uptake and transport, and soil mineral absorption. These disturbances result in reduced seedling vigor and interrupted growth which negatively affects grain quality and yield.
Fungal mycelium penetrates the host-plant cells and limits access to nutrients and water. Released toxins disrupt metabolic and physiological processes. This leads to the reduction of photosynthetic pigment content and disturbances of photosynthesis [
44]. Our study demonstrated that
F. culmorum infection significantly decreased the content of chlorophyll
a,
b, and carotenoids in the leaves. Similar observations were published by other researchers examining the content of photosynthetic pigments after
F. culmorum infection in tomato [
31] or barley [
32]. In our study, the results of visual assessment of DR in the leaves and roots negatively correlated with the content of Chl
a,
b, and Car.
Soluble sugars play an important role in plant development and metabolism, and therefore, their content fluctuates during plant infection. Soluble sugars in the host-plant cells are a source of carbon for the pathogen [
46,
47,
48]. Sucrose was shown to induce defense mechanisms in the infected cells. The hexose, through signal transduction by hexokinase, increases the production of peroxidases and proteins directly related to pathogenesis [
14,
16]. Soluble sugars, as compounds with higher osmotic potential, limit the spread of the infection. Moreover, they isolate healthy cells from the infected ones and protect them against water loss [
49]. Our analyzes of TSC showed that infection significantly increased TSC content in cv. ‘Tamaroi’ and BC
5Nax
2 leaves and decreased TSC levels in the roots. A contrary trend was observed in the leaves and roots of SMH87 line. Warzecha et al. [
32] noted an increased sugar content in the leaves and their decrease in the roots of barley infected by
F. culmorum. Morkunas et al. [
16] reported that increased content of soluble sugars supported the resistance of
Lupinus luteus L. to
F. oxysporum infection, while Gaudet et al. [
15] observed a similar correlation in wheat infested by snow mold fungi. Bani et al. [
50] suggested that
Fusarium species infection during seed germination disrupted sugar distribution between cotyledons and the tissues of embryo axis in the germinating seeds. Formela-Luboińska et al. [
51] reported that soluble carbohydrates reduced sporulation of
F. oxysporum f. sp.
lupini and limited the production of moniliformin toxin synthesized by this
Fusarium species. In our study, the more resistant Australian accessions (cv. ‘Tamaroi’, BC
5Nax
2) showed higher sugar content in the leaves of infected seedlings than Polish SMH87. Our research demonstrated that sugar content in the leaves was a stronger indicator of
F. culmorum resistance than that in the roots.
Synthesis of phenolic compounds is a well-known defense response to pathogen attack. Their biosynthesis occurs both before and after the infection [
52]. The defensive role of phenolics in fungal infections in plants was confirmed in our previous studies [
53,
54,
55]. The phenolic compounds involved in the immune response to pathogen attack include salicylic and chlorogenic acids. Salicylic acid controls the content of the signal molecule hydrogen peroxide (H
2O
2) responsible for plant resistance to environmental stresses. Salicylic acid activates superoxide dismutase (SOD), which boosts H
2O
2 production and stimulates the synthesis of pathogenesis related proteins (PR)—chitinases and glucanases that decompose the cell wall of the fungal hyphae [
56,
57]. Salicylic acid participates in systemic acquired resistance (SAR). This reaction is triggered in the case of biotrophic fungi infection. The fungi from
Fusarium species are classified as hemibiotrophic ones, which means that the pathogens initially behave like biotrophic fungi and then switch on to the optional parasitization mode [
52]. Another group of compounds participating in the immune response to pathogens is phytoalexins, i.e., low molecular weight phenolics. They are derivatives of benzoic acid, stilbene, coumarin or quercetin [
58,
59]. The synthesis of phenolic compounds requires a large energy input, and therefore, it depends on the accumulation of the number of soluble sugars in the cells. We confirmed this correlation in our experiments. High correlation (r = 0.631;
p < 0.05) between TSC and TPC may indicate the plant defense response to the infection consisting in the increase of TSC consumption for ATP synthesis and further use of this energy in the synthesis of phenolics. SMH87 plants, more sensitive to
F. culmorum, showed a significant decrease in the phenolic content in the leaves as compared with the other accessions. Contrary to that, the most resistant BC
5Nax
2line was characterized by the highest content of phenolics in the leaves and roots of the control and infected seedlings. Hakulinen et al. [
60] suggested that the lowered content of phenolics may be caused by the synthesis of lignin that is a polymer of oxidized phenolic alcohols. Lignin fortifies cell walls making them difficult for fungal hyphae to colonizing the host plant [
61,
62]. Datta and Lal [
63] and Noman et al. [
64] reported this phenomenon as a hypersensitivity reaction initiated as a plant defense mechanism to developing an infection. In our experiment, a decrease in leaf TPC was associated with higher content of cell-wall-bound phenolic compounds (CWP) only in BC
5Nax
2. The same line revealed a relationship between decreased root TPC and increased accumulation of CWP. The leaf CWP content positively correlated with the content of H
2O
2 (r = 0.679;
p < 0.05). In the leaves, TPC content negatively correlated with H
2O
2 levels, while TPC content in the roots negatively correlated with H
2O
2 concentration in both studied organs. These negative correlations may suggest that during
Fusarium infection, TPC acted as antioxidants and possibly reduced H
2O
2 amount.
Antioxidant enzymes, such as CAT, POXs, and SOD, form the first line of defense against ROS during the entire pathogenesis [
65,
66,
67]. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is responsible for the dismutation of the superoxide radicals to molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. CAT and POX decompose H
2O
2. Some studies reported that
Fusarium infections boosted the activity of the antioxidant enzymes [
68,
69,
70]. In the investigated wheat seedlings, we detected greater POX and SOD activity in the roots than in the leaves. It can be explained by the fact that the in vitro infection started in the roots growing in the infected medium. In the roots we observed a correlation between SOD activity and H
2O
2 accumulation (r = 0.613;
p < 0.05), while in the leaves there was a correlation between CAT and POX activity and H
2O
2 (r = 0.710 and r = 0.688;
p < 0.05, respectively). We recorded high negative correlation between TPC content and CAT and POX activity in the leaves (r = −0.788 and r = −0.515;
p < 0.05, respectively). These results may suggest a competition between antioxidant enzymes and phenolic compounds for H
2O
2, which can indicate the antioxidant properties of phenolics. We reported higher activity of the antioxidant enzymes and higher levels of H
2O
2 in the control leaves than in the control roots. The infection decreased the activity of the antioxidant system in the roots, but not in the leaves. The enzyme activity poorly differentiated the studied accessions regarding their resistance to
F. culmorum. Only CAT activity was twofold higher in the infected SMH87 leaves, considered by us to be more sensitive to
Fusarium, while in cv. ‘Tamaroi’ and BC
5Nax
2 line this activity was lower or remained unchanged. Płażek and Żur [
71] indicated that low activity of CAT could be a marker of a plant resistance to a fungal infection, as CAT decomposes H
2O
2 that is necessary for the defense as a signal molecule.
Fusarium head blight causes huge yield losses in cereals, reaching over 40%. The disease reduces grain yield, its mass, nutritional value and leads to grain contamination with mycotoxins [
6]. Our research confirmed that spike infection not only reduces the grain mass, but also lowers the final yield. The reduction of yield parameters is also associated with high concentrations of mycotoxins in the grain. Negative correlation between the examined yield parameters (amount of grain per spike, mass of grain per spike, mass of a single grain, and mass of thousand seeds) and the content of NIV and DON suggest the reduction of the yield is mainly, due to accumulated toxins. ZEN content only affected the mass of a single grain, and we found no relationships between T–2 toxin and the yield. The visual assessment of spike infestation degree (FHBi) was performed at two terms: Seven and fourteen days after infection. In both terms, FHBi highly negatively correlated with the yield parameters. It could be stated that FHBi, especially 7 days after the infection, is a reliable method to determine cereal resistance to the infection, as confirmed by other studies [
72,
73].The statistical analysis showed a strong correlation between FHBi 7 and 14 days after the infection, and DON accumulation in the grain (r = 0.733, r = 0.632,
p < 0.05, respectively), and NIV content (r = 0.731, r = 0.630,
p < 0.05, respectively). A similar relationship between FHBi and DON accumulation was observed by Haidukowski et al. [
74] in common wheat. Nowicki et al. [
75] and Pascale et al. [
76] claimed that FHBi can be used to predict the grain contamination degree with mycotoxins before performing detailed analyses. In our research, we used NIV-chemotype isolate of
F. culmorum, which is considered a milder
Fusarium chemotype than DON-chemotype or acetyl derivatives (3AcDON, 15AcDON) [
77,
78]. Desjardin and Plattner [
79] reported that
F. culmorum NIV-chemotypes can produce DON, but in amounts <1% of NIV, while DON-chemotypes are not capable of producing NIV [
80]. In our experiments, we observed increased level of DON in relation to NIV, which contradicted the hypothesis presented by Dejsrdin and Plattner [
79].