Environmental Factors Affecting Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone and Thyroid Hormone Levels
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Short Overview of Genetic Factors That Influence TSH and Thyroid Hormone Levels
3. Environmental Factors That Influence TSH and Thyroid Hormone Levels
3.1. Lifestyle Factors
3.1.1. Smoking
3.1.2. Alcohol Consumption
3.1.3. Body Mass Index
3.1.4. Diet
Soy
Brassica Vegetables
Olive Oil
Food Associated with the Development of Endemic Goiter
Other Food
Beverages
Micronutrients (Vitamins, Trace Minerals, Macrominerals)
3.1.5. Exercise
Factor | Effect on Hormone Levels | Number of Participants | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Smoking | ↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑fT3 | 5766 | [16] | ||
↓TSH, fT4, fT3 | 4585 | [146] | |||
↓TSH, ↑fT4 | 895 | [21] | |||
↓TSH, fT4 | 4357 | [28] | |||
↓TSH | 15,181 | [27] | |||
↓TSH, fT4 | 3404 | [251] | |||
↓TSH | 5639 | [252] | |||
↓TSH | 4427 | [253] | |||
↓TSH, ↓tT4, ↑Tg | 1409 | [208] | |||
↓TSH, ↓tT4, fT4, tT3, ↑fT3, ↑Tg | 1540 | [254] | |||
↓TSH | 1581 | [255] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↑fT3 | 931 | [256] | |||
↓TSH, fT4 | 3399 | [26] | |||
↓TSH, ↓tT4, ↓tT3 | 237 | [257] | |||
↓TSH, fT4 | 1853 | [64] | |||
↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑fT3 | 7799 | [22] | |||
↓TSH | 30,834 | [25] | |||
↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑fT3 | 6085 | [258] | |||
↓TSH, T4 | 15,592 | [24] | |||
↓TSH, ↑T4 | 4462 | [259] | |||
↓TSH, T4, fT4, T3, fT3 | 1154 | [260] | |||
↓TSH, T3 | 4100 | [261] | |||
TSH, T4, ↑T3 | 50 | [262] | |||
↓TSH, T4, T3, ↑Tg | 219 | [263] | |||
↓TSH, ↑T4, T3 | 181 | [264] | |||
TSH, ↓T4, ↓T3 | 200 | [265] | |||
↓TSH, T4, ↑T3, ↓rT3, ↑Tg | 441 | [266] | |||
Alcohol consumption | ↑TSH, ↓fT3 | 5766 | [16] | ||
TSH, ↓fT4 | 549 (men) | [40] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 67 | [39] | |||
TSH, T4, T3 | 100 | [38] | |||
TSH, T4, ↑T3 | 30 | ||||
TSH, fT4, ↓T4, fT3, T3 | 55 | [37] | |||
↑fT4 | 21 | [43] | |||
TSH, T4, fT4, ↓T3, ↓fT3 | 70 | [36] | |||
↑TSH, T4, fT4, ↓fT3, ↓T3 | 80 | [41] | |||
TSH, T4, T3, ↑Tg | 111 | [44] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↓tT4, ↓tT3 | 38 | [42] | |||
Increased body mass index | TSH, ↓fT4 | 90 | [267] | ||
↑TSH (BMI higher than 25.3 kg/m2) | 11,224 | [268] | |||
↓TSH (BMI lower than 25.3 kg/m2) | |||||
↑TSH | 75 | [269] | |||
↑TSH | 2789 | [15] | |||
TSH, fT4, fT3 | 34 | [270] | |||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↑fT3 | 77,991 | [9] | |||
TSH | 88 | [271] | |||
↓fT4, ↑fT3, ↑fT3/ fT4 | 16,975 | [65] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↓fT3 | 36,655 (all subjects) | [272] | |||
↓fT4 | 18,746 (men) | ||||
↑TSH | 80 | [273] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4 | 7693 | [274] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4 | 1100 | [275] | |||
↑TSH | 140 | [276] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↑fT3 | 940 | [277] | |||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, fT3 | 26,719 | [56] | |||
TSH, fT4, fT3 | 1275 | [278] | |||
TSH | 162 | [279] | |||
↑TSH, ↓fT4 | 9402 | [8] | |||
↑TSH | 800 | [280] | |||
TSH | 1097 | [281] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, ↑tT3, ↑Tg | 746 (men) | [208] | |||
↑TSH | 1044 (men) | [282] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4, ↑fT3, ↑tT3, ↑fT3/ fT4 | 2315 | [60] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4 | 6241 (all subjects) | [283] | |||
↓TSH | 2837 (women) | ||||
TSH, fT4, ↑tT4, fT3, ↑tT3 | 736 | [67] | |||
↑TSH | 417 | [284] | |||
↑TSH | 5918 | [285] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, fT3 | 60 | [286] | |||
fT4, ↑fT3 | 865 | [287] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, ↑fT3 | 3114 | [288] | |||
↑TSH, fT4 | 778 | [289] | |||
↑TSH | 1084 | [290] | |||
↑TSH | 15,020 | [291] | |||
↑TSH, fT4 | 581 | [292] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, ↑fT3 | 520 | [59] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↑T3, ↑T3/fT4 | 275 | [293] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, tT3 | 27,097 | [53] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4 | 44,196 | [294] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4 | 1853 | [64] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, ↑fT3 | 152 | [242] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4 | 1572 | [295] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, fT3 | 265 | [296] | |||
↑TSH, fT4 | 86 | [297] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↑fT3, ↑fT3/ fT4 | 201 | [57] | |||
↑TSH | 1725 | [23] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, fT3 | 87 | [298] | |||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, fT3 | 4082 | [55] | |||
Diet | Soy food or soy isoflavones | ↑TSH, fT4, fT3 | Meta-analysis | [14] | |
↑TSH, ↓fT4, fT3, ↑rT3 | 400 | [96] | |||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, fT3 | 200 | [95] | |||
TSH, fT4, fT3 | 47 | [93] | |||
TSH, fT4 | 505 | [299] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↓fT3 | 43 | [100] | |||
TSH, fT4 | 403 | [94] | |||
TSH, fT4, fT3 | 93 | [300] | |||
TSH, fT4 | 63 | [301] | |||
TSH, fT4, fT3 | 389 | [92] | |||
TSH, T4 | Meta-analysis | [302] | |||
TSH | 77 | [303] | |||
TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | 147 | [91] | |||
TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3 | 35 | [90] | |||
TSH, T4, T3, fT4 | 25 | [143] | |||
TSH | 89 | [304] | |||
TSH, T4, T3 | 38 | [89] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4, fT3 | 32 | [98] | |||
↑TSH, ↑T4, ↑T3 | 73 | [97] | |||
TSH | 76 | [305] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↓fT3, T4, T3 | 14 | [306] | |||
TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3 | 18 | [99] | |||
Brassica vegetables | Sulforaphane (natural product present in cruciferous vegetables like broccoli) | TSH, T4, Tg | 45 | [109] | |
Roots of cruciferous plant Lepidium peruvianum Chacon | TSH, T4, T3 | 20 | [108] | ||
Brussels sprouts | TSH, tT4, fT4, tT3 | 10 | [107] | ||
Other food | Seaweed | ↑TSH, fT3, fT4 | 19 | [144] | |
Seaweed | ↑TSH (returned to normal after several days), fT4 | 9 | [145] | ||
Seaweed | ↑TSH (returned to normal after several days), ↓fT4, ↓fT3 (returned to normal after several days) | 13 | [141] | ||
Seaweed | ↑TSH, T4, T3, fT4 | 25 | [143] | ||
Kelp | ↑TSH, fT4, ↓fT3 | 36 | [142] | ||
Kelp, vegans vs. omnivores | ↑TSH | 101 | [307] | ||
Full-fat cheese, cottage cheese, hard cheese | ↓fT4 | 4585 | [146] | ||
Pasta and rice | ↑fT4 | ||||
Whole-grain bread | ↓fT4 | ||||
White bread | ↑fT4 | ||||
White fish, blue fish, dried fish, seafood, squid | ↑fT4, ↑fT3 | ||||
Fruit juices, cedevita, nonalcoholic drinks | ↓TSH, ↑fT4 | ||||
Pork, beef, eggs | ↓fT4 | ||||
Bacon, sausages | ↑fT4, ↑fT3 | ||||
Butter, animal fat | ↓fT4 | ||||
Canned vegetables, mushrooms | ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | ||||
Powder soups, vegetable juices | ↑fT4 | ||||
Venison, fish derivates | ↓TSH | ||||
Non-home-made meal | ↑T4 | 100 | [147] | ||
Whole grains, green tea | ↓T3 | ||||
Pasta | ↑fT4 | ||||
Olive oil | Mediterranean diet | TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 324 | [120] | |
Olive oil | TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | ||||
Vegetables cooked with olive oil | ↑T3 | 100 | [147] | ||
Food associated with the development of endemic goiter | Cassava | ↓T4, ↓T3 | 20 | [308] | |
Beverages | Coffee | TSH, ↑fT4 | 9408 | [164] | |
Coffee | TSH, T3 | Not reported | [163] | ||
Micronutrients | ↑ Vitamin D | TSH, ↑fT4, fT3 | 123 | [309] | |
↑ Vitamin D | TSH, ↓T4, ↓T3 | 300 | [184] | ||
↓ Vitamin D | TSH, fT4 | 2006 | [310] | ||
↓ Vitamin D | ↑TSH | 294 | [182] | ||
↑ Vitamin D | ↓TSH | 1424 | [183] | ||
↑ Vitamin D | ↓TSH | 2582 | [175] | ||
↑Selenium | TSH, ↓fT4, fT3 | 69 | [207] | ||
TSH, ↑fT4 | 184 (women) | [229] | |||
TSH, T4, fT4, T3, rT3 | 387 | [311] | |||
↓TSH, ↓fT4, fT3 | 361 | [206] | |||
TSH, fT4, fT3, Tg | 1383 | [208] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 1144 | [205] | |||
TSH, ↑fT4 | 140 | [312] | |||
TSH, tT4, ↑T3, | 28 | [313] | |||
TSH, fT4, fT3, Tg | 88 | [314] | |||
TSH, T4, T3 | 42 | [315] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4, fT3 | 52 | [316] | |||
TSH, ↓fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, ↑fT3/fT4 | 368 | [204] | |||
↑TSH, ↓T3 | 12 | [317] | |||
TSH, fT4, fT3, fT3/fT4 | 44 | [219] | |||
↓T4, Tg | 52 | [203] | |||
TSH, ↓T4, T3, ↑T3/T4 | 109 | [202] | |||
TSH, ↓T4, ↓fT4, T3, ↓rT3 | 52 | [201] | |||
↑Zinc | TSH, fT4, fT3 | 98 | [217] | ||
TSH, ↓tT4, ↓fT4, tT3, fT3 | 746 (men) | [208] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↑fT3 | 64 | [220] | |||
TSH | 219 | [318] | |||
↓tT4, tT3 | 178 | [218] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↑fT3, ↑fT3/fT4 | 44 | [219] | |||
TSH, tT4, fT4, tT3 | 109 | [202] | |||
Iron deficiency | TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 3846 | [228] | ||
Iron deficiency anemia | TSH, ↓tT4, fT4, ↓tT3, fT3 | 128 | [227] | ||
Anemia | TSH, fT4, tT4, ↑fT3 | 50 | [226] | ||
Iron supplements | TSH, fT4, ↑tT4, ↑tT3, ↓rT3 | 94 | [319] | ||
Anemia | ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 20 | [320] | ||
↑Copper | TSH, ↑fT4 | 417 | [229] | ||
TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | 746 (men) | [208] | |||
TSH, fT4, ↑tT4, fT3, ↑tT3, Tg | 663 (women) | ||||
Iodine excess | ↑TSH | Meta-analysis | [240] | ||
↑TSH | 78,470 | [241] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, ↓fT3 | 854 | [239] | |||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 236 | [321] | |||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 256 | [238] | |||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↑Tg | 10 | [237] | |||
↓T4, T3 | 30 | [235] | |||
↑TSH, ↓T4, ↓T3 | 32 | [236] | |||
Exercise | TSH, fT4 | 2470 | [250] | ||
↓TSH, ↑T4, ↑T3 | 36 | [248] | |||
TSH, ↑fT4, ↑fT3 | 9 | [247] | |||
↑TSH, ↑fT4, ↑T4, ↓fT3, ↓T3 | 60 | [249] | |||
TSH, fT4, T4, fT3, T3 | 26 | [246] | |||
↑fT4, ↓fT3, ↓T3, ↑rT3 | 27 | [322] | |||
TSH | 6 | [323] | |||
fT4, T4, fT3, T3, rT3 | 46 | [324] | |||
↑TSH, ↑fT4 | 14 | [325] | |||
T4, ↑T3, ↑rT3 | 12 | [326] | |||
↑T4, ↓T3, ↑rT3 | 4 | [327] | |||
↑TSH | 8 | [328] |
3.2. Pollutants
3.2.1. Chemicals
Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Polybrominated Biphenyls
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers
Bisphenol A
Phthalates
Perchlorate
Perfluoroalkyl Substances
Pesticides
Nitrate
3.2.2. Heavy Metals
Factor | Compounds Used in the Study | Effect on Hormone Levels | Number of Participants | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chemicals | Polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated biphenyls | PBB | TSH, ↓fT4, ↑fT3, ↑tT3, ↑fT3/fT4 | 715 | [349] | |
PCB | TSH, ↑fT4, fT3, ↑fT3/fT4 | |||||
PCBs and hydroxylated PCBs | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3 | 79 | [348] | |||
PCB | TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT4, ↑fT3, ↑tT3 | 551 | [347] | |||
PCB | TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 122 | [346] | |||
PCB | TSH, ↓fT4, ↑tT4, tT3 | 87 | [345] | |||
PCB | ↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT4, ↑fT3, ↑tT3 | 67 | [353] | |||
PCB | ↓tT3 | 114 | [435] | |||
PCB x BDE | ↑tT3 | |||||
PCB | TSH, fT4, ↓tT3 | 623 | [344] | |||
PCB | ↑TSH, ↓T4, ↓T3 | 211 | [351] | |||
PCB | ↑TSH, ↓fT4, tT4, tT3 | 232 | [423] | |||
PCB | TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT3 | 2042 | [484] | |||
PCB | TSH, fT4, ↓tT3 | 341 | [343] | |||
PCB | TSH, ↑fT4 | 2045 | [422] | |||
PCB | ↓tT4 | 2445 | [356] | |||
Dioxin-like toxic equivalents | ↑TSH, ↓tT4 | |||||
PCB | ↓TSH | 454 | [418] | |||
PCB | TSH, fT4 | 196 | [341] | |||
PCB | ↓TSH, ↓tT4, ↓tT3 | 66 | [352] | |||
Dioxin-like toxic equivalents | ↓TSH | |||||
PCB | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3 | 110 | [354] | |||
PCB | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, ↓tT3 | 182 | [339] | |||
PCB | ↓T4 | 229 | [355] | |||
PCB | TSH, fT4, tT4 | 192 | [421] | |||
PCB | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3 | 173 | [340] | |||
PCB | tT4 | 111 | [350] | |||
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers | PBDE | ↑TSH, fT4, tT4, ↑fT3, ↓tT3 | 85 | [362] | ||
PBDE | TSH, fT4, ↑tT4, fT3, ↑tT3 | 79 | [348] | |||
PBDE | TSH, fT4, ↓tT4, tT3 | 52 | [361] | |||
PBDE | TSH, fT4, ↑tT3 | 623 | [344] | |||
PBDE | ↑TSH | 49 | [363] | |||
PBDE | TSH, fT4, tT4, tT3 | 36 | [360] | |||
PBDE | ↓TSH, ↑tT4, ↓tT3, ↑rT3 | 308 | [364] | |||
PBDE (BDE-47) | ↓TSH, tT4, fT4, tT3, fT3 | 110 | [354] | |||
Bisphenol A | BPA | TSH, tT4, ↑tT3 | 90 | [368] | ||
BPA | ↓TSH, tT4, tT3 | 6003 | [372] | |||
BPA | ↑TSH, fT4 | 194 | [370] | |||
BPA | TSH, ↓fT4 | 2340 | [367] | |||
BPA | ↓TSH, fT4, ↑fT3 | 3394 | [371] | |||
BPA | TSH, fT4, tT4, tT3, Tg | 1346 | [369] | |||
BPA | ↓TSH, fT4, tT3 | 167 | [373] | |||
Phthalates | DEHP metabolites and MEHHP | ↓tT4 | Meta-analysis (included studies on pregnant women and children) | [382] | ||
MEOHP | ↓fT4 | |||||
MEHHP, DEHP metabolite | TSH, fT4, ↓T4, T3 | 279 | [379] | |||
MEHP, MEOHP | TSH, ↓fT4, T4, T3 | |||||
Monoethyl phthalate | TSH, ↑fT4, T4, T3 | |||||
MEOHP | ↑TSH, tT4, tT3 | 6003 | [372] | |||
DEHP metabolites | TSH, ↓tT4, tT3 | |||||
MnBP | TSH, tT4, ↓tT3 | |||||
MnBP | ↑TSH, fT4 | 43 (all subjects) | [380] | |||
MnBP, 5Cx-MEP, 5Oxo-MEHP, MBzP | ↑TSH, fT4 | 30 (women) | ||||
MEHHP | ↓tT4 | 1877 (all subjects) | [381] | |||
MEOHP | ↑tT4 | 907 (women) | ||||
DEHP | ↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↓tT4, ↓tT3, ↓Tg | 1346 | [369] | |||
MEHP | TSH, ↓fT4, ↓tT3 | 408 | [378] | |||
Perchlorate | Perchlorate | TSH, ↓fT4 | 2702 | [388] | ||
↓fT4 | 564 | [387] | ||||
TSH, ↓fT4, ↓tT4 | 4023 | [386] | ||||
↓fT4, ↓tT4, ↓fT3, tT3 | 1877 | [381] | ||||
↑TSH, ↓tT4 | 1111 | [385] | ||||
Perfluoroalkyl substances | PFAS | TSH, fT4, fT3 | 3297 | [399] | ||
PFOS, PFNA, PFAS, PFHxS | TSH, ↑fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3 | 1325 | [400] | |||
PFOA | TSH, ↓tT4, ↓fT4, tT3 | 3070 | [398] | |||
PFOS | TSH, ↓tT4, fT4, tT3 | |||||
PFNA, PFDeA | ↓TSH, tT4, fT4, tT3 | |||||
PFOA, PFNA | ↑TSH, tT4, fT4, tT3, fT3 | 85 | [406] | |||
PFNA | ↑tT3, ↑fT3 | 47 (women) | ||||
PFNA | ↓tT3, ↓fT3 | 38 (men) | ||||
PFOS | ↑fT3 | 47 (women) | ||||
PFOS | ↓fT3 | 38 (men) | ||||
PFOS | ↑TSH, ↓tT4, ↑fT4, ↓tT3 | Meta-analysis (including pregnant women) | [401] | |||
PFOA | TSH, ↓tT4, tT3 | |||||
PFNA | TSH, T4, ↑fT4, ↑T3 | 99 | [397] | |||
PFOA | TSH, T4, fT4, ↑T3 | |||||
PFOA | TSH, fT4, tT4, tT3, ↑fT3 | 1012 | [396] | |||
PFOS | TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT4, tT3 | 87 | [345] | |||
PFOS, PFNA | ↓TSH, tT4, fT4, tT3, fT3 | 158 (male adolescents) | [402] | |||
PFOA | ↓TSH, tT4, fT4, tT3, fT3 | 145 (female adolescents) | ||||
PFOA, PFOS, PFNA | TSH, tT4, ↑fT4, tT3, fT3 | 257 (women 20-40 years old) | ||||
PFOA | TSH, tT4, fT4, ↑tT3, ↑fT3 | 199 (women 60-80 years old) | ||||
PFNA | TSH, ↑fT4 | 567 | [403] | |||
PFOA | ↑TSH, tT4, fT4, ↑tT3, fT3, Tg | 1540 | [254] | |||
PFHxS | TSH, ↑tT4, fT4, tT3, fT3, Tg | |||||
PFOA | TSH, tT4, fT4, ↑tT3, fT3 | 509 (women) | [395] | |||
PFHxS | TSH, ↑tT4, fT4, ↑tT3, fT3 | 509 (women) | ||||
TSH, tT4, ↓fT4, tT3, fT3 | 672 (men) | |||||
PFTrDA | ↑TSH, ↓tT4 | 633 | [405] | |||
PFOS, PFOA | TSH, ↑tT4 | 50,113 | [394] | |||
PFC | TSH, fT4 | 31 | [393] | |||
PFOS | ↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↓tT3 | 623 | [344] | |||
PFOA | TSH, ↓fT4, T4, ↑T3 | 506 | [392] | |||
PFOA | TSH | 371 | [391] | |||
PFOS | TSH, fT4, T4, ↑T3 | 255 | [404] | |||
Pesticides | Conventional farmers that use insecticides, herbicides and fungicides in comparison to organic farmers | ↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↑T4, ↑fT3, ↑T3 | 438 | [410] | ||
Organophosphate insecticides | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3 | 41 | [432] | |||
Rural workers exposed to pesticides in comparison to controls | ↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT3 | 73 | [420] | |||
3-PBA (metabolite of pyrethroid insecticide) | TSH, ↓tT4, ↓tT3 | 6208 | [429] | |||
Insecticides and pyrethroids for >20 years | ↓fT4, ↓tT3 | 106 | [436] | |||
TCPY (a metabolite of chlorpyrifos) | TSH, ↓tT4, fT4, tT3, fT3, ↓Tg | 2015 | [427] | |||
Mancozeb (fungicide) | TSH, fT4, ↓T4, ↑fT3, T3, ↓Tg | 63 | [428] | |||
3-PBA | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | 2015 | [430] | |||
p,p′-DDE (a stable metabolite of DDT) | TSH, ↑tT4, ↑tT3 | 136 | [434] | |||
Pesticide sprayers exposed to organophosphate and organochlorine pesticides | ↑TSH, T4, ↓T3 | 60 | [417] | |||
DDT+DDE | ↑tT4, ↑tT3 | 48 (women) | [435] | |||
DDT+DDE + PCB | ↑tT4 | |||||
DDT+DDE + PCB | ↓tT3 | 66 (men) | ||||
Exposure to organophosphate and carbamate pesticides | TSH, fT4 | 99 | [425] | |||
High exposure pesticide season | TSH, ↓fT4, tT3 | 91 | [426] | |||
HCH | ↑TSH, ↓fT4 | 303 (men) | [416] | |||
HCB, heptachlor, o,p′-DDT and p,p′-DDT | ↑fT4 | 305 (women) | ||||
Endosulphan 2 | ↓tT3 | 303 (men) | ||||
Alpha-chlordane, p,p′- DDT, endosulphan 2 and methoxychlor | ↑tT3 | 305 (women) | ||||
TCPY (a metabolite of chlorpyrifos) | ↓TSH, ↑tT4 | 1589 (men) | [415] | |||
↑TSH | 218 (women) | |||||
Insecticide fipronil sulfone metabolite | ↓TSH, fT4, tT4 | 155 | [419] | |||
DAP | ↑TSH, ↑tT4 | 215 | [414] | |||
DMP | ↑TSH, ↑tT4, ↓tT3 | |||||
Organochlorine pesticides | ↓tT3 | 623 | [344] | |||
Hexachlorobenzene | ↓fT4 | |||||
cis-DCCA (pyrethroid metabolite) | TSH, fT4, tT3 | 161 | [424] | |||
3-PBA and trans-DCCA (pyrethroid metabolites) | TSH, fT4, tT3 | |||||
HCB | TSH, fT4, ↓tT4, tT3 | 232 | [423] | |||
DDE | TSH, ↓fT4, ↑tT3 | 2045 | [422] | |||
HCB | ↑TSH, ↓fT4, tT3 | |||||
p,p′-DDE | ↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT3 | 341 | [343] | |||
HCB | ↓tT3 | |||||
p,p′-DDE | TSH, tT4 | 2445 | [356] | |||
PCB + DDE + HCB | ↓TSH | 454 | [418] | |||
DDE | TSH, tT4, tT3 | 66 | [352] | |||
p,p′-DDE | ↑TSH, fT4 | 196 | [341] | |||
High exposure pesticide season | TSH, ↓fT4, fT3, tT3 | 122 | [433] | |||
In the fall in comparison to the spring season (people are exposed to higher levels of pesticides in fall) | ↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑fT3, ↑tT3 | |||||
TCPY (a metabolite of chlorpyrifos) | ↑TSH, fT4, tT3 | 322 | [413] | |||
1N (a metabolite of carbaryl and naphthalene) | TSH, fT4, tT3 | |||||
EBDC fungicides | TSH | 131 | [431] | |||
HCB | T4 | 66 | [485] | |||
High exposure pesticide season | ↑TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT4 | 193 | [412] | |||
DDT, HCB | ↓T3 | 16 | [438] | |||
DDE | TSH, T4, T3 | 51 | [355] | |||
HCB | TSH, fT4, ↓tT4 | 192 | [421] | |||
Exposure to organophosphates and organochlorine pesticides | TSH, T4, ↓T3 | 50 | [437] | |||
EBDC fungicides | ↑TSH, T4 | 94 | [411] | |||
Nitrate | Nitrate | T4, T3 | 30 | [445] | ||
↑TSH, fT4 | 41 | [443] | ||||
↓fT4 | 307 | [387] | ||||
TSH, ↓tT4 | 1111 | [385] | ||||
TSH, T4, T3 | 20 | [444] | ||||
↓TSH, ↑T4 | 60 | [442] | ||||
Heavy metals | Studies determining multiple metals | Pb, Cd, As | TSH | 102 | [454] | |
Pb | ↑TSH, fT4, fT3 | 100 | [460] | |||
Cd | TSH, fT4, fT3 | |||||
Pb | ↑TSH, tT4, tT3 | 5628 | [461] | |||
Cd | TSH, tT4, tT3 | |||||
Cd | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | 1391 | [459] | |||
Pb | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | |||||
Cd | TSH, ↑fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, ↑Tg | 6231 (all subjects) | [458] | |||
TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, ↑tT3, ↑Tg | 3231 (men) | |||||
Pb | TSH, fT4, tT4, ↑fT3, tT3, Tg | 6231 (all subjects) | ||||
TSH, fT4, ↓tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | 3231 (men) | |||||
TSH, ↑fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | 3000 (women) | |||||
Hg | TSH, fT4, ↓tT4, ↓fT3, ↓tT3, Tg | 4409 | [457] | |||
Cd | TSH, fT4, ↑tT4, ↑fT3, ↑tT3, ↑Tg | |||||
Pb | TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | |||||
Hg | TSH, fT4, ↓T4, ↓fT3, ↓T3 | 1587 | [456] | |||
Cd | ↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑T4, ↑fT3, ↑T3 | |||||
Pb | ↓TSH | 219 | [318] | |||
As | ↑TSH | |||||
Hg, Cd | TSH | |||||
Pb | ↓TSH, T4, ↑T3 | 211 | [351] | |||
Hg | ↑TSH, T4, T3 | |||||
Pb | TSH, fT4, tT4, ↑T3 | 232 | [423] | |||
Hg | TSH, fT4, tT4, T3 | |||||
Studies determining single metal | Arsenic | UDMA | ↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↓tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | 4126 | [453] | |
UAAS | TSH, fT4, ↓tT4, fT3, tT3, Tg | |||||
UAS, UAB | ↓TSH, fT4, tT4, fT3, tT3, ↓Tg | |||||
↑TSH, fT4, fT3 | 38 | [452] | ||||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3, ↑Tg | 185 | [451] | ||||
Cadmium | TSH, ↓fT4 | 1972 | [463] | |||
TSH, ↑fT4, ↑fT3 | 1724 | [462] | ||||
↑TSH, ↓fT4, ↓fT3 | 277 | [455] | ||||
↓fT4, ↑tT3 | 105 | [464] | ||||
Mercury | ↑TSH, ↑fT4, ↓T4, fT3, T3 | Meta-analysis | [480] | |||
↑TSH, fT4, fT3, tT3 | 110 | [479] | ||||
TSH, ↓T4, ↓T3 | 137 | [482] | ||||
TSH, ↑fT4, ↓fT3, ↑fT4/fT3 | 82 | [481] | ||||
↑rT3, ↑fT4/fT3 | 94 | [483] | ||||
Lead | ↓TSH, ↑fT4, ↑fT3 | 87 | [468] | |||
TSH, fT4, T4, fT3, T3 | Meta-analysis | [475] | ||||
TSH, T4, T3 | 195 | [474] | ||||
T4, ↓fT4 | 220 | [478] | ||||
↑T3, ↑T4 | 76 | [477] | ||||
↑TSH | 125 | [467] | ||||
TSH, ↓fT4, fT3 | 97 | [473] | ||||
TSH, fT4, T4, ↓fT3, ↓T3 | 157 | [472] | ||||
TSH, fT4, fT3 | 103 | [471] | ||||
↑TSH, fT4, ↓T4, ↓T3 | 75 | [465] | ||||
↑TSH, fT4, fT3 | 93 | [466] | ||||
TSH, ↑fT4, ↑tT4, ↑fT3, tT3 | 57 | [476] | ||||
TSH, T4 | 151 | [469] | ||||
TSH, ↓fT4, ↓tT4, tT3 | 176 | [470] |
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
1N | 1-naphthol |
3-PBA | phenoxybenzoic acid |
5Cx-MEP | mono-ethyl phthalate |
5Oxo-MEHP | mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate |
As | arsenic |
BMI | body mass index |
BPA | bisphenol A |
Cd | cadmium |
DAP | dialkyl phosphate |
cis and trans-DCCA | cis and trans-3-2,2-dichlorovinyl-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid |
DDE | p,p′-diphenyldichloroethene |
DDT | p,p′-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane |
DEHP | di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate |
Dio1 | type 1 iodothyronine deiodinase |
Dio2 | type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase |
DMP | dimethyl metabolite |
EBDC | ethylene bisdithiocarbamate |
EDC | endocrine-disrupting compound |
ESS | euthyroid sick syndrome |
fT3 | free triiodothyronine |
fT4 | free thyroxine |
GWAS | genome-wide association studies |
HCB | hexachlorobenzene |
HCH | beta-hexachlorocyclohexane |
Hg | mercury |
HPT axis | hypothalamus–pituitary–thyroid axis |
MBzP | mono-benzyl phthalate |
MEHP | mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate |
MEHHP | mono (2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate |
MEOHP | mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate |
MnBP | mono-n-butyl phthalate |
NIS | sodium/iodide symporter |
PBB | polybrominated biphenyl |
PBDE | polybrominated diphenyl ether |
PCB | polychlorinated biphenyl |
PFAS | perfluoroalkyl substance |
PFC | perfluorinated compound |
PFDeA | perfluorodecanoate |
PFHxS | perfluorohexane sulfonate |
PFNA | perfluorononanoic acid |
PFOA | perfluorooctanoic acid |
PFOS | perfluorooctane sulfonic acid |
PFTrDA | perfluorotridecanoic acid |
POP | persistent organic pollutant |
rT3 | reverse triiodothyronine |
T3 | triiodothyronine |
T4 | thyroxine |
tT3 | total T3 |
tT4 | total T4 |
TCPY | trichloro-2-pyridinol |
Tg | thyroglobulin |
TPO | thyroid peroxidase |
TRH | thyrotropin-releasing hormone |
TSH | thyroid-stimulating hormone |
UAAS | arsenic adjusted for arsenobetaine |
UAB | arsenobetaine |
UAS | total arsenic |
UDMA | dimethylarsinic acid |
VDR | vitamin D receptor |
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