An Overview of the Main Genetic, Epigenetic and Environmental Factors Involved in Autism Spectrum Disorder Focusing on Synaptic Activity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Autism
2.1. Clinical Characteristics of ASD
2.2. Epidemiology
3. Genetic and Epigenetic Factors
3.1. Relevant Candidate Genes
Synaptic Architecture and Functionality
- Cell adhesion molecules
- Scaffold proteins
- Voltage-gated ion channels
3.2. Epigenetic Factors
- DNA methylation
- miRNA
4. Environmental Factors
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Gene Symbol | Gene Name | Alterations | Associated Syndromes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chromatin regulators | ANKRD11 | Ankyrin repeat domain 11 | Mutations; copy number loss | KBG syndrome; Cornelia de Lange syndrome |
ARID1B | AT-rich interaction domain 1B | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain; translocation | Coffin–Siris syndrome | |
ASXL3 | ASXL Transcriptional Regulator 3 | Mutations | Bainbridge-Ropers syndrome | |
ATRX | ATRX Chromatin Remodeler | Mutations; copy number loss | ||
AUTS2 | Autism susceptibility candidate 2 | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain; inversion; translocation | ||
CHD2 | Chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 2 | Mutations; copy number loss | Tourette syndrome | |
CHD7 | Chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 7 | Mutations; copy number loss; translocation | CHARGE syndrome | |
CHD8 | Chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 8 | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain; translocation | ||
CREBBP | CREB-binding protein | Mutations; copy number loss | Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome, Menke-Hennekam syndrome 1, Tourette syndrome | |
EHMT1 | Euchromatic histone-lysine N-methyltransferase 1 | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain; translocation | Kleefstra syndrome | |
MBD5 | Methyl-CpG binding domain protein 5 | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain; inversion; translocation | 2q23.1 microdeletion syndrome, Kleefstra syndrome | |
MECP2 | Methyl CpG binding protein 2 | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain; promoter methylation | Rett syndrome, X-linked intellectual disability, MECP2 duplication syndrome | |
SETD5 | SET domain containing 5 | Mutations; copy number loss | ||
Transcription factors/regulators | ADNP | Activity-dependent neuroprotector homeobox | Mutations; copy number loss | Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome |
FOXG1 | Forkhead box G1 | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain; translocation | Rett syndrome, FOXG1 syndrome, West syndrome, | |
FOXP1 | Forkhead box P1 | Mutations; copy number loss; inversion; translocation | ||
FOXP2 | Forkhead box P2 | Mutations; copy number loss; translocation | FOXP2-related speech and language disorder | |
MED13L | Mediator complex subunit 13-like | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain | ||
POGZ | Pogo transposable element with ZNF domain | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain | White–Sutton syndrome | |
RAI1 | Retinoic Acid Induced 1 | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain | Smith–Magenis syndrome, Potocki–Lupski syndrome | |
TBR1 | T-box, brain, 1 | Mutations; copy number loss | ||
TCF4 | Transcription factor 4 | Mutations; copy number loss; translocation | Pitt–Hopkins syndrome | |
ZBTB20 | Zinc finger and BTB domain containing 20 | Mutations; copy number loss; translocation | 3q13.31 microdeletion syndrome, Primrose syndrome, | |
mRNA binding and trafficking regulator | FMR1 and its pathways | Fragile X mental retardation 1 | Mutations; copy number loss | Fragile X syndrome, Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome |
Protein degradation | UBE3A | Ubiquitin protein ligase E3A | Mutations; copy number gain | Angelman syndrome |
Cell growth/proliferation | DYRK1A | Dual-specificity tyrosine-(Y)-phosphorylation regulated kinase 1A | Mutations; copy number loss; inversion; translocation | |
NF1 | Neurofibromin 1 | Mutations; copy number loss | ||
PTEN and its pathways | Phosphatase and tensin homolog | Mutations; copy number loss | Cowden syndrome, Macrocephaly/autism syndrome, PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome | |
SYNGAP1 | Synaptic Ras GTPase activating protein 1 | Mutations; copy number loss; translocation | ||
TSC1/TSC2 | Tuberous sclerosis 1/2 | Mutations | ||
Protein modification | CDKL5 | Cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 | Mutations; copy number loss; copy number gain translocation | Rett syndrome, Angelman syndrome |
Factor | Evidence | References |
---|---|---|
Parental age | Association studies; meta-analyses; animal studies | [108,109,110,111,112,113] |
Perinatal factors | Meta-analyses | [114,115,116] |
Sex steroids | Association studies | [117,118,119,120,121] |
Maternal nutrition | Association studies; meta-analyses; in vitro studies, animal studies | [123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,136,137,138,139,140,141,142] |
Fetal exposure to drugs, smoke, alcohol | Association studies; meta-analyses | [143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151] |
Maternal diseases | Meta-analyses | [152,153] |
Maternal infections | Association studies; meta-analyses; animal studies | [154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161] |
Fetal exposure to toxic xenobiotics | Association studies; meta-analyses; in vitro studies; animal studies | [166,167,168,169,170,171] |
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Masini, E.; Loi, E.; Vega-Benedetti, A.F.; Carta, M.; Doneddu, G.; Fadda, R.; Zavattari, P. An Overview of the Main Genetic, Epigenetic and Environmental Factors Involved in Autism Spectrum Disorder Focusing on Synaptic Activity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 8290. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218290
Masini E, Loi E, Vega-Benedetti AF, Carta M, Doneddu G, Fadda R, Zavattari P. An Overview of the Main Genetic, Epigenetic and Environmental Factors Involved in Autism Spectrum Disorder Focusing on Synaptic Activity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(21):8290. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218290
Chicago/Turabian StyleMasini, Elena, Eleonora Loi, Ana Florencia Vega-Benedetti, Marinella Carta, Giuseppe Doneddu, Roberta Fadda, and Patrizia Zavattari. 2020. "An Overview of the Main Genetic, Epigenetic and Environmental Factors Involved in Autism Spectrum Disorder Focusing on Synaptic Activity" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 21: 8290. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218290