Intra-Individual Behavioural Variability: A Trait under Genetic Control
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Overview of Study Performed
2.2. Chicken Study Population and Cross Design
2.3. Behavioural Phenotyping
2.3.1. Social Reinstatement
2.3.2. Open Field
2.3.3. Tonic Immobility
2.4. Defining Intra-Individual Variability as a Trait
2.5. Calculating the Magnitude of Intra-Individual Behavioural Variability
2.6. Genotyping and QTL Mapping
2.7. Significance Thresholds
2.8. Candidate Gene Analysis
2.9. Network Edge Orientation (NEO) Analysis
2.10. Data Availability
3. Results
3.1. Correlational Structure between Intra-Individual Behavioural Variability Traits
3.2. Genetic Architecture of Intra-Individual Behavioural Variation
3.3. Candidate Genes for Intra-Individual Behavioural Variability
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Sih, A.; Bell, A.; Johnson, J.C. Behavioral syndromes: An ecological and evolutionary overview. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2004, 19, 372–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Réale, D.; Reader, S.M.; Sol, D.; McDougall, P.T.; Dingemanse, N.J. Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution. Biol. Rev. 2007, 82, 291–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bell, A.M.; Hankison, S.J.; Laskowski, K.L. The repeatability of behaviour: A meta-analysis. Anim. Behav. 2009, 77, 771–783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cleasby, I.R.; Nakagawa, S.; Schielzeth, H. Quantifying the predictability of behaviour: Statistical approaches for the study of between-individual variation in the within-individual variance. Methods Ecol. Evol. 2015, 6, 27–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Westneat, D.F.; Wright, J.; Dingemanse, N.J. The biology hidden inside residual within-individual phenotypic variation. Biol. Rev. 2015, 90, 729–743. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Davies, N.B.; Krebs, J.R.; West, S.A. An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Stamps, J.A.; Briffa, M.; Biro, P.A. Unpredictable animals: Individual differences in intraindividual variability (IIV). Anim. Behav. 2012, 83, 1325–1334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Briffa, M.; Bridger, D.; Biro, P.A. How does temperature affect behaviour? Multilevel analysis of plasticity, personality and predictability in hermit crabs. Anim. Behav. 2013, 86, 47–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Botero, C.A.; Rossman, R.J.; Caro, L.M.; Stenzler, L.M.; Lovette, I.J.; de Kort, S.R.; Vehrencamp, S.L. Syllable type consistency is related to age, social status and reproductive success in the tropical mockingbird. Anim. Behav. 2009, 77, 701–706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Searcy, W.A.; Peters, S.; Kipper, S.; Nowicki, S. Female response to song reflects male developmental history in swamp sparrows. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2010, 64, 1343–1349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mathot, K.J.; Olsen, A.-L.; Mutzel, A.; Araya-Ajoy, Y.G.; Nicolaus, M.; Westneat, D.F.; Wright, J.; Kempenaers, B.; Dingemanse, N.J. Provisioning tactics of great tits (Parus major) in response to long-term brood size manipulations differ across years. Behav. Ecol. 2017, 28, 1402–1413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Westneat, D.F.; Mutzel, A.; Bonner, S.; Wright, J. Experimental manipulation of brood size affects several levels of phenotypic variance in offspring and parent pied flycatchers. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2017, 71, 91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brembs, B. Towards a scientific concept of free will as a biological trait: Spontaneous actions and decision-making in invertebrates. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2011, 278, 930–939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Piersma, T.; Drent, J. Phenotypic flexibility and the evolution of organismal design. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2003, 18, 228–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dingemanse, N.J.; Wolf, M. Between-individual differences in behavioural plasticity within populations: Causes and consequences. Anim. Behav. 2013, 85, 1031–1039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mathot, K.J.; van den Hout, P.J.; Piersma, T.; Kempenaers, B.; Réale, D.; Dingemanse, N.J. Disentangling the roles of frequency-vs. state-dependence in generating individual differences in behavioural plasticity. Ecol. Lett. 2011, 14, 1254–1262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Martin, J.G.; Pirotta, E.; Petelle, M.B.; Blumstein, D.T. Genetic basis of between-individual and within-individual variance of docility. J. Evol. Biol. 2017, 30, 796–805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bengston, S.E.; Dahan, R.A.; Donaldson, Z.; Phelps, S.M.; Van Oers, K.; Sih, A.; Bell, A.M. Genomic tools for behavioural ecologists to understand repeatable individual differences in behaviour. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2018, 2, 944–955. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fogelholm, J.; Inkabi, S.; Höglund, A.; Abbey-Lee, R.; Johnsson, M.; Jensen, P.; Henriksen, R.; Wright, D. Genetical Genomics of Tonic Immobility in the Chicken. Genes 2019, 10, 341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Johnsson, M.; Henriksen, R.; Fogelholm, J.; Höglund, A.; Jensen, P.; Wright, D. Genetics and Genomics of Social Behavior in a Chicken Model. Genetics 2018, 209, 209–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Johnsson, M.; Williams, M.J.; Jensen, P.; Wright, D. Genetical Genomics of Behavior: A novel chicken genomic model for anxiety behavior. Genetics 2016, 202, 327–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schutz, K.; Kerje, S.; Carlborg, O.; Jacobsson, L.; Andersson, L.; Jensen, P. QTL analysis of a red junglefowl x White Leghorn intercross reveals trade-off in resource allocation between behavior and production traits. Behav. Genet. 2002, 32, 423–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schutz, K.E.; Kerje, S.; Jacobsson, L.; Forkman, B.; Carlborg, O.; Andersson, L.; Jensen, P. Major growth QTLs in fowl are related to fearful behavior: Possible genetic links between fear responses and production traits in a red junglefowl x white leghorn intercross. Behav. Genet. 2004, 34, 121–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Johnsson, M.; Gustafson, I.; Rubin, C.-J.; Sahlqvist, A.-S.; Jonsson, K.B.; Kerje, S.; Ekwall, O.; Kämpe, O.; Andersson, L.; Jensen, P.; et al. A Sexual Ornament in Chickens Is Affected by Pleiotropic Alleles at HAO1 and BMP2, Selected during Domestication. PLoS Genet. 2012, 8, e1002914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Suarez, S.D.; Gallup, G.G. Social reinstatement and open-field testing in chickens. Anim. Learn. Behav. 1983, 11, 119–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Marin, R.H.; Freytes, P.; Guzman, D.; Jones, R.B. Effects of an acute stressor on fear and on the social reinstatement responses of domestic chicks to cagemates and strangers. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2001, 71, 57–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Prut, L.; Belzung, C. The open field as a paradigm to measure the effects of drugs on anxiety-like behaviors: A review. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2003, 463, 3–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnsson, M.; Jonsson, K.B.; Andersson, L.; Jensen, P.; Wright, D. Genetic Regulation of Bone Metabolism in the Chicken: Similarities and Differences to Mammalian Systems. PLoS Genet. 2015, 11, e1005250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Johnsson, M.; Rubin, C.J.; Höglund, A.; Sahlqvist, A.S.; Jonsson, K.; Kerje, S.; Ekwall, O.; Kämpe, O.; Andersson, L.; Jensen, P.; et al. The role of pleiotropy and linkage in genes affecting a sexual ornament and bone allocation in the chicken. Mol. Ecol. 2014, 23, 2275–2286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lynch, M.; Walsh, B. Genetics and Analysis of Quantitative Traits; Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Darvasi, A.; Soller, M. Optimum spacing of genetic markers for determining linkage between marker loci and quantitative trait loci. Theor. Appl. Genet. 1994, 89, 351–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Broman, K.W.; Wu, H.; Sen, Ś.; Churchill, G.A. R/qtl: QTL mapping in experimental crosses. Bioinformatics 2003, 19, 889–890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Broman, K.W.; Sen, S. A Guide to QTL Mapping with r/qtl; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Churchill, G.A.; Doerge, R.W. Empirical Threshold values for Quantitative Trait Mapping. Genetics 1994, 138, 964–971. [Google Scholar]
- Doerge, R.W.; Churchill, G.A. Permutation Tests for Multiple Loci Affecting a Quantitative Character. Genetics 1996, 142, 285–294. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Lander, E.S.; Kruglyak, L. Genetic Dissection of Complex Traits: Guidelines for Interpreting and Reporting Linkage Results. Nat. Genet. 1995, 11, 241–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Manichaikul, A.; Dupuis, J.; Sen, S.; Broman, K.W. Poor Performance of Bootstrap Confidence Intervals for the Location of a Quantitative Trait Locus. Genetics 2006, 174, 481–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Aten, J.E.; Fuller, T.F.; Lusis, A.J.; Horvath, S. Using genetic markers to orient the edges in quantitative trait networks: The NEO software. BMC Syst. Biol. 2008, 2, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Farber, C.R.; Aten, J.E.; Farber, E.A.; de Vera, V.; Gularte, R.; Islas-Trejo, A.; Wen, P.; Horvath, S.; Lucero, M.; Lusis, A.J. Genetic dissection of a major mouse obesity QTL (Carfhg2): Integration of gene expression and causality modeling. Physiol. Genom. 2009, 37, 294–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Plaisier, C.L.; Horvath, S.; Huertas-Vazquez, A.; Cruz-Bautista, I.; Herrera, M.F.; Tusie-Luna, T.; Aguilar-Salinas, C.; Pajukanta, P. A systems genetics approach implicates USF1, FADS3, and other causal candidate genes for familial combined hyperlipidemia. PLoS Genet. 2009, 5, e1000642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dingemanse, N.J.; Kazem, A.J.; Réale, D.; Wright, J. Behavioural reaction norms: Animal personality meets individual plasticity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2010, 25, 81–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Réale, D.; Dingemanse, N.J. Personality and individual social specialisation. Soc. Behav. Genes Ecol. Evol. 2010, 417–441. [Google Scholar]
- Salthouse, T.A. Implications of within-person variability in cognitive and neuropsychological functioning for the interpretation of change. Neuropsychology 2007, 21, 401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ram, N.; Gerstorf, D. Time-structured and net intraindividual variability: Tools for examining the development of dynamic characteristics and processes. Psychol. Aging 2009, 24, 778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Noftle, E.E.; Fleeson, W. Age differences in big five behavior averages and variabilities across the adult life span: Moving beyond retrospective, global summary accounts of personality. Psychol. Aging 2010, 25, 95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Salthouse, T.A.; Nesselroade, J.R. Dealing with short-term fluctuation in longitudinal research. J. Gerontol. Ser. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 2010, 65, 698–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ydenberg, R.C. Provisioning. In Foraging; Stephens, D.W., Brown, J.S., Ydenberg, R.C., Eds.; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 2008; pp. 273–303. [Google Scholar]
- Westneat, D.F.; Schofield, M.; Wright, J. Parental behavior exhibits among-individual variance, plasticity, and heterogeneous residual variance. Behav. Ecol. 2013, 24, 598–604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stamps, J.; Groothuis, T.G. The development of animal personality: Relevance, concepts and perspectives. Biol. Rev. 2010, 85, 301–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tymanskyj, S.R.; Yang, B.; Falnikar, A.; Lepore, A.C.; Ma, L. MAP7 regulates axon collateral branch development in dorsal root ganglion neurons. J. Neurosci. 2017, 37, 1648–1661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Torri, F.; Akelai, A.; Lupoli, S.; Sironi, M.; Amann-Zalcenstein, D.; Fumagalli, M.; Fiume, C.D.; Ben-Asher, E.; Kanyas, K.; Cagliani, R. Fine mapping of AHI1 as a schizophrenia susceptibility gene: From association to evolutionary evidence. FASEB J. 2010, 24, 3066–3082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Venkatasubramanian, G. Understanding schizophrenia as a disorder of consciousness: Biological correlates and translational implications from quantum theory perspectives. Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci. 2015, 13, 36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- MacDonald, S.W.; Nyberg, L.; Bäckman, L. Intra-individual variability in behavior: Links to brain structure, neurotransmission and neuronal activity. Trends Neurosci. 2006, 29, 474–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dingemanse, N.J.; Bouwman, K.M.; Van De Pol, M.; van Overveld, T.; Patrick, S.C.; Matthysen, E.; Quinn, J.L. Variation in personality and behavioural plasticity across four populations of the great tit Parus major. J. Anim. Ecol. 2012, 81, 116–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Desforges, M.; Wood-Gush, D. A behavioural comparison of domestic and mallard ducks. Habituation and flight reactions. Anim. Behav. 1975, 23, 692–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Campler, M.; Jöngren, M.; Jensen, P. Fearfulness in red junglefowl and domesticated White Leghorn chickens. Behav. Process. 2009, 81, 39–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Henriksen, R.; Johnsson, M.; Andersson, L.; Jensen, P.; Wright, D. The domesticated brain: Genetics of brain mass and brain structure in an avian species. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 34031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Favati, A.; Zidar, J.; Thorpe, H.; Jensen, P.; Løvlie, H. The ontogeny of personality traits in the red junglefowl, Gallus gallus. Behav. Ecol. 2016, 27, 484–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
OF_Move | OF_Velocity | OF_Centre_Freq | OF_Time_Centre | SR_Stimlatency | SR_Start | SR_Stim | SR_Distance | TI_Time | Global_Average | OF_Average | SR_Average | OF_SR_Average | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Trait—behavioral IIV | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude | magnitude |
OF_move_magnitude | - | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** | 0.01 * | 0.86 | 0.86 | 0.38 | 0.28 | 0.18 | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** | 0.45 | 0.00 *** |
OF_velocity_magnitude | 0.87 | - | 0.00 *** | 0.02 * | 0.94 | 0.96 | 0.19 | 0.04 * | 0.31 | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** | 0.19 | 0.00 *** |
OF_centre_freq_magnitude | 0.42 | 0.45 | - | 0.00 *** | 0.67 | 0.21 | 0.27 | 0.03 * | 0.62 | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** | 0.53 | 0.00 *** |
OF_time_centre_magnitude | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.21 | - | 0.22 | 0.07# | 0.07# | 0.19 | 0.06# | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** | 0.02 * | 0.00 *** |
SR_stimlatency_magnitude | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.05 | - | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** | 0.62 | 0.42 | 0.00 *** | 0.81 | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** |
SR_start_magnitude | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.05 | 0.08 | 0.38 | - | 0.00 *** | 0.70 | 0.55 | 0.00 *** | 0.78 | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** |
SR_stim_magnitude | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.64 | 0.24 | - | 0.57 | 1.00 | 0.00 *** | 0.06 | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** |
SR_distance_no_magnitude | 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.06 | −0.02 | −0.02 | 0.02 | - | 0.32 | 0.00 *** | 0.02 * | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** |
TI_time_magnitude | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.00 | −0.04 | - | 0.00 *** | 1.00 | 0.86 | 0.99 |
Global_average_magnitude | 0.59 | 0.61 | 0.53 | 0.43 | 0.51 | 0.41 | 0.52 | 0.30 | 0.26 | - | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** |
OF_average_magnitude | 0.83 | 0.84 | 0.72 | 0.49 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.75 | - | 0.06# | 0.00 *** |
SR_average_magnitude | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.10 | 0.79 | 0.63 | 0.75 | 0.39 | 0.01 | 0.68 | 0.08 | - | 0.00 *** |
OF_SR_average_magnitude | 0.62 | 0.64 | 0.53 | 0.42 | 0.51 | 0.41 | 0.54 | 0.32 | 0.00 | 0.97 | 0.77 | 0.70 | - |
Trait | Chr | Position | Lod | R2 | Add+/−s.e. | Dom+/−se | Lower ci | Upper ci | lower_Marker | Upper_Marker | Covariates | Interaction |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OF_total_velocity_trial2 | 1 | 387 | 13.2 | 6.2 | 985+/−209 | 37.50+/−285 | 379 | 409 | 1_24012566 | 1_27115232 | sex, batch, arena, w42, | 1@387:10@82 |
OF_total_movement_trial2 | 1 | 428 | 11.3 | 6.5 | −12.96+/−9.35 | −15.60+/−11.01 | 401 | 453 | Gg_rs14799859 | 1_30756049 | sex, batch, arena, w42 | 10@64:1@428, 1@428:sex |
OF_total_velocity_trial2 | 1 | 591 | 15.7 | 7.4 | −2611+/−427 | −2839+/−683 | 580 | 595 | Gg_rs15239304 | Gg_rs14815974 | sex, batch, arena, w42, | 1@591:13@32 |
SR_latency_to_enter_stimulus_zone_trial2 | 1 | 823 | 5.6 | 3.7 | −128.57+/−28.38 | −33.75+/−47.60 | 803 | 854 | 1_58811848 | Gg_rs13874954 | sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
SR_time_in_stimulus_zone_trial2 | 1 | 1088.6 | 4.9 | 3.2 | −0.09+/−0.07 | 0.07+/−0.10 | 812 | 1117 | 1_58811848 | 1_84853091 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
TI duration 2 | 1 | 1750 | 7.3 | 5 | −30.8+/−11.7 | −2.0+/−15.4 | 1735 | 1756 | Gg_rs10728648 | snp-23-342-18608-S-2 | sex, batch, PC2,6 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
TI_duration_IIV | 1 | 1750 | 12.1 | 10.1 | −35.6+/−14.7 | −28.9+/−9.5 | 1739 | 1755 | Gg_rs10728648 | snp-23-342-18608-S-2 | batch, sex, PC1, PC2, PC3, PC10, w212 | [email protected]:[email protected], [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_time_in_centre_zone_IIV | 2 | 121 | 7.2 | 5.5 | 0.02+/−0.02 | −0.03+/−0.03 | 96 | 137 | Gg_rs15060526 | Gg_rs15067636 | batch, sex, w42, PC4, PC5, PC7 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
TI duration 2 | 2 | 181 | 7.9 | 5.2 | −63.0+/−14.9 | −35.7+/−18.3 | 170 | 195 | Gg_rs15070042 | 2_23979784 | sex, batch, PC2,6 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_velocity_IIV | 2 | 350 | 9.7 | 5.9 | −78+/−51 | −139+/−78 | 329 | 360 | snp-5-242-106204-S-2 | Gg_rs15094455 | batch, sex, w42, PC | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_movement_IIV | 2 | 351 | 10.2 | 7.5 | −0.38+/−0.14 | −0.45+/−0.21 | 345 | 402 | 2_41000405 | Gg_rs15094455 | batch, sex, w42, PC1, PC10 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_average_IIV | 2 | 354 | 9.4 | 6.5 | −0.14+/−0.04 | −0.08+/−0.06 | 346 | 368 | 2_41000405 | Gg_rs15094455 | batch, sex, PC2, PC6, PC7 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_time_in_centre_zone_trial2 | 2 | 426 | 8.1 | 6.0 | 0.00+/−0.03 | −0.08+/−0.03 | 416 | 431 | Gg_rs15094455 | GG_rs15099683 | sex, batch, arena, w42, | 2@426:4@191 |
OF_total_movement_trial2 | 2 | 513 | 4.1 | 2.3 | 0.81+/−0.21 | −0.04+/−0.27 | 503 | 541 | Gg_rs15107655 | Gg_rs14200463 | sex, batch, arena, w42 | - |
OF_total_movement_average | 2 | 513 | 10.3 | 6.0 | 0.94+/−0.19 | −0.56+/−0.24 | 504 | 520 | Gg_rs15107655 | Gg_rs15112090 | sex, batch, w42 | 2@513:10@185 |
OF_total_movement_trial1 | 2 | 515 | 21 | 8.8 | −3.54+/−0.91 | 2.85+/−1.24 | 504 | 522 | Gg_rs15107655 | Gg_rs15112090 | sex, batch, w42 | 10@99:2@515, 2@515:w42 |
OF_number_visits_centre_trial2 | 2 | 519 | 5.42 | 3.57 | 3.62+/−0.73 | −1.27+/−1.07 | 505 | 568 | Gg_rs15107655 | Gg_rs14206130 | sex, batch, arena, w42, | - |
SR_time_in_start_zone_average | 2 | 656 | 13.2 | 6.7 | −0.07+/−0.02 | 0.03+/−0.02 | 647 | 662 | Gg_rs10723221 | Gg_rs14225365 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | [email protected]:[email protected], [email protected]:[email protected] |
SR_latency_to_enter_stimulus_zone_trial2 | 2 | 657.6 | 3.8 | 2.5 | −26.05+/−6.96 | 24.95+/−9.58 | 512 | 715 | Gg_rs15107655 | Gg_rs14232962 | sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
SR_latency_to_enter_stimulus_zone_average | 2 | 658 | 5.4 | 3.4 | −26.32+/−5.53 | 18.97+/−7.61 | 652 | 664 | Gg_rs10723221 | Gg_rs14225365 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
TI average d. | 2 | 774 | 6.5 | 4.6 | −10.8+/−9.2 | −28.7+/−14 | 764 | 795 | RBL1120 | Gg_rs15146557 | sex, batch, PC2,6 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
SR_latency_to_enter_stimulus_zone_average | 3 | 162 | 4.9 | 3.1 | 7.86+/−5.41 | 39.48+/−8.52 | 137 | 180 | Gg_rs14084016 | Gg_rs15282380 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
SR_latency_to_enter_stimulus_zone_trial2 | 3 | 166 | 4.6 | 3.0 | 3.21+/−6.83 | 48.13+/−10.65 | 141 | 179 | Gg_rs14084016 | 3_16300000 | sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
SR_time_in_stimulus_zone_IIV | 3 | 408 | 9.6 | 7.0 | 3.5+/−2.3 | −7.4+/−2.8 | 401 | 411 | Gg_rs15337358 | Gg_rs14349767 | batch, sex, w42, PC10 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_velocity_IIV | 3 | 417 | 6.3 | 3.8 | 352+/−86 | 56+/−112 | 413 | 432 | Gg_rs14349767 | Gg_rs15361114 | batch, sex, w42, PC | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_movement_IIV | 3 | 419 | 5.8 | 4.2 | 2.0+/−0.66 | 0.05+/−0.80 | 411 | 431 | Gg_rs14349767 | snp-17-141-24973-S-1 | batch, sex, w42, PC1, PC10 | [email protected]:sex |
TI_duration_IIV | 3 | 564 | 5.6 | 4.5 | −8.8+/−15.6 | −8.3+/−19.3 | 443 | 578 | rbl1045 | Gg_rs15416272 | batch, sex, PC1, PC2, PC3, PC10, w212 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
TI duration 2 | 7 | 4 | 11.5 | 7.8 | 11.2+/−13.5 | 48.5+/−17.7 | 0 | 8 | Gg_rs15826188 | Gg_rs15828492 | sex, batch, PC2,6 | [email protected]:[email protected], [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_movement_average | 7 | 103 | 5.0 | 2.8 | 0.62+/−0.25 | −0.54+/−0.31 | 92 | 110 | Gg_rs15835348 | Gg_rs15845344 | sex, batch, w42 | [email protected]:7@103 |
OF_total_velocity_average | 7 | 104 | 6.8 | 3.1 | 387.30+/−179.98 | −322.00+/−228 | 95 | 110 | Gg_rs15835348 | Gg_rs15845344 | sex, batch, w42 | 7@104:10@101 |
OF_total_velocity_IIV | 7 | 104 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 462+/−91 | −498+/−124 | 86 | 113 | Gg_rs15834580 | Gg_rs15845344 | batch, sex, w42, | [email protected]:[email protected] |
global_IIV | 7 | 122 | 5.2 | 3.8 | −0.37+/−0.31 | 0.81+/−0.35 | 113 | 128 | Gg_rs14607135 | GG_rs15846462 | batch, sex, PC1, PC4, PC7, PC8 | [email protected]:sex |
OF_average_IIV | 7 | 122 | 5.8 | 4 | 0.03+/−0.46 | 0.70+/−0.53 | 114 | 128 | Gg_rs14607135 | GG_rs15846462 | batch, sex, PC2, PC6, PC7 | [email protected]:sex |
OF_number_visits_centre_trial1 | 7 | 145 | 4.9 | 3.5 | −15.26+/−11.13 | 33.33+/−12.48 | 137 | 153 | 7_15017822 | Gg_rs15853763 | sex, batch, arena, w42, | - |
SR_latency_to_enter_stimulus_zone_average | 7 | 175.5 | 8.5 | 5.5 | −15.27+/−7.39 | 1.91+/−9.12 | 159 | 194 | Gg_rs15850767 | 7_24150587 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
SR_time_in_stimulus_zone_trial2 | 7 | 281 | 5.6 | 3.6 | 0.11+/−0.06 | −0.32+/−0.09 | 272 | 295 | Gg_rs15878354 | Gg_rs13600357 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
OF_total_movement_trial2 | 10 | 64 | 15.1 | 8.9 | 13.43+/−8.52 | −11.56+/−8.74 | 46 | 177 | Gg_rs14941298 | Gg_rs14949856 | sex, batch, arena, w42 | 10@64:1@428, 10@64:sex |
OF_total_velocity_trial2 | 10 | 82 | 11.2 | 5.2 | −47+/−228 | −42.70+/−347 | 67 | 111 | Gg_rs14941656 | Gg_rs14003134 | sex, batch, arena, w42, | 1@387:10@82 |
OF_total_movement_trial1 | 10 | 99 | 14.2 | 13.7 | 1.20+/−0.81 | 2.35+/−1.18 | 94 | 104 | Gg_rs14001676 | Gg_rs14003134 | sex, batch, w42 | 10@99:2@515, 10@99:w42 |
TI average d. | 10 | 99 | 5.9 | 4.1 | −15.1+/−7.7 | 14.9+/−10.1 | 86 | 109 | Gg_rs14941656 | Gg_rs14003134 | sex, batch, PC2,6 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_movement_average | 10 | 99 | 7.2 | 4.1 | 0.73+/−0.19 | −0.76+/−0.30 | 98 | 106 | Gg_rs14001865 | Gg_rs14003134 | sex, batch, w42 | [email protected]:7@103 |
OF_total_velocity_trial1 | 10 | 99 | 4.7 | 3.0 | 528.18+/−134.16 | −619.00+/−192 | 95 | 110 | Gg_rs15060526 | Gg_rs14139143 | sex, batch, w42 | - |
OF_total_velocity_average | 10 | 101 | 9.9 | 4.6 | 649+/−150 | −1006.00+/−230 | 96 | 107 | Gg_rs14001676 | Gg_rs14003134 | sex, batch, w43 | 7@104:10@101 |
OF_average_IIV | 10 | 126 | 8.5 | 5.8 | 0.05+/−0.05 | −0.15+/−0.07 | 107 | 134 | Gg_rs14002026 | Gg_rs14006050 | batch, sex, PC2, PC6, PC7 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_movement_IIV | 10 | 130 | 8.9 | 6.5 | 0.16+/−0.15 | −0.38+/−0.22 | 118 | 139 | Gg_rs14003134 | Gg_rs14006050 | batch, sex, w42, PC1, PC10 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_velocity_IIV | 10 | 130 | 9.9 | 9.9 | 84+/−52 | −175+/−82 | 123 | 138 | 10_9525779 | Gg_rs14006050 | batch, sex, w42, | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_movement_average | 10 | 185 | 8.2 | 4.7 | 0.72+/−0.19 | −0.64+/−0.24 | 178 | 192 | Gg_rs14008254 | GG_rs14951592 | sex, batch, w42 | 2@513:10@185 |
TI duration 1 | 10 | 185 | 8.5 | 6.8 | 2.4+/−9.5 | −34.6+/−12.2 | 176 | 198 | Gg_rs14008254 | GG_rs14951592 | sex, batch, PC1,4 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
OF_total_velocity_average | 17 | 1 | 15.0 | 7.2 | 611+/−129 | −473.00+/−174 | 0 | 8 | Gg_rs15035175 | Gg_rs15033588 | sex, batch, w44 | 17@1:8@194 |
TI_duration_IIV | 17 | 159 | 7.4 | 6 | 28.9+/−9.5 | 42.0+/−13.3 | 132 | 178 | Gg_rs14099239 | Gg_rs14097200 | batch, sex, PC1, PC2, PC3, PC10, w212 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
SR_time_in_start_zone_average | 18 | 54 | 6.4 | 3.2 | 0.02+/−0.02 | −0.05+/−0.02 | 24 | 63 | 18_3045583 | Gg_rs13507726 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
SR_time_in_stimulus_zone_IIV | 20 | 112 | 10.3 | 7.6 | 6.9+/−3.1 | −1.1+/−2.9 | 60 | 145 | GG_rs15171843 | Gg_rs15175145 | batch, sex, w42, PC10 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
SR_time_in_stimulus_zone_trial2 | 20 | 245 | 6.5 | 4.2 | 0.01+/−0.02 | −0.01+/−0.03 | 239 | 252 | Gg_rs15177950 | Gg_rs14280872 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
TI average d. | 20 | 247.7 | 6.4 | 4.8 | −9.4+/−7.1 | 24+/−10.1 | 237 | 252 | Gg_rs15177950 | Gg_rs14280872 | sex, batch, PC2,6 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
TI average d. | 24 | 60.7 | 7 | 4.9 | −20.9+/−8.5 | −21.0+/−11 | 53 | 67 | GG_rs16194400 | Gg_rs14294768 | sex, batch, PC2,6 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
TI duration 2 | 24 | 61 | 16.5 | 11.5 | 21.5+/−15.3 | −40.9+/−18.7 | 54 | 65 | GG_rs16194400 | Gg_rs14294768 | sex, batch, PC2,6 | [email protected]:[email protected], [email protected]:[email protected] |
SR_total_velocity_trial1 | 24 | 72 | 5.2 | 2.3 | 370+/−99 | −607+/−127 | 66 | 77 | Gg_rs13604720 | Gg_rs14295223 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
SR_total_movement_trial1 | 24 | 75 | 5.6 | 3.7 | 0.54+/−0.13 | −0.80+/−0.17 | 66 | 80 | Gg_rs13604720 | Gg_rs15219713 | arenas, sex, batch, PC, w42 | |
OF_time_in_centre_zone_IIV | 24 | 77 | 8.8 | 6.8 | −0.01+/−0.02 | 0.09+/−0.02 | 73 | 79 | Gg_rs14294768 | Gg_rs15219713 | batch, sex, w42, PC4, PC5, PC7 | [email protected]:[email protected] |
QTL Chromosome and Position (cM) | Gene | SINGLE MODEL | COMBINED MODEL | NEO | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gene Expression (p-Value) | Genotype (p-Value) | Gene Expression (p-Value) | Genotype (p-Value) | LEO Score | Model p-Value | ||
chr 3—419 | MAP7 | 0.03/0.06 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.36 | 0.09 |
chr 2—351 | SFRP4 | 0.02/0.05 | NS | NA | NA | 0.29 | 0.92 |
chr 3—417 | MAP7 | 0.02/0.04 | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.11 | 0.23 | 0.06 |
chr 2—350 | SFRP4 | 0.01/0.03 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.5 | 0.84 |
chr 10—130 | X603600179F1 (LOC100136711) | 0.04/0.04 | NS | NA | NA | 0.51 | 0.72 |
chr 2—35 | X603862030F1(TjP1) | 0.07/0.07 | NS | NA | NA | −0.33 | 0.36 |
chr 2—354 | SFRP4 | 0.02/0.07 | NS | NA | NA | 0.16 | 0.07 |
chr 3—408 | X603599288F1(unknown) | 0.009/0.02 | 0.06/0.03 | 0.016 | 0.05/0.02 | 0.53 | 0.57 |
chr 3—408 | X603600684F1(GALNT2) | 0.03/0.06 | 0.06/0.03 | 0.02 | 0.05/0.02 | 0.27 | 0.31 |
chr 1—1750 | ITGBL1 | 0.005/0.005 | 0.03 | 0.005 | 0.14 | 0.51 | 0.33 |
chr 1—1750 | ABHD13 | 0.05/0.05 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.09 | −0.11 | 0.17 |
chr 3—564 | ENPP1 | 0.02/0.04 | NS | NA | NA | 0.34 | 0.26 |
chr 7—122 | X603601250F1(C2orf42) | 0.04/0.07 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.1 | 0.25 | <0.001 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Henriksen, R.; Höglund, A.; Fogelholm, J.; Abbey-Lee, R.; Johnsson, M.; Dingemanse, N.J.; Wright, D. Intra-Individual Behavioural Variability: A Trait under Genetic Control. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 8069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218069
Henriksen R, Höglund A, Fogelholm J, Abbey-Lee R, Johnsson M, Dingemanse NJ, Wright D. Intra-Individual Behavioural Variability: A Trait under Genetic Control. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(21):8069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218069
Chicago/Turabian StyleHenriksen, Rie, Andrey Höglund, Jesper Fogelholm, Robin Abbey-Lee, Martin Johnsson, Niels J. Dingemanse, and Dominic Wright. 2020. "Intra-Individual Behavioural Variability: A Trait under Genetic Control" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 21: 8069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218069