Cholesterol Crystal Embolism and Chronic Kidney Disease
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Etiology
3. Epidemiology
4. Pathogenesis
4.1. Necroinflammation
4.2. Activation of Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
4.3. Complement Activation
5. Pathology
6. Clinic Presentations
6.1. Renal Complication of Cholesterol Crystal Embolism (CCE)
6.2. Extra-Renal Manifestation
7. Treatments
7.1. Corticosteroids
7.2. Lipid-Lowering Therapies
7.3. Dialysis and Other Therapies
8. Outcome
9. Prevention
10. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Organ | Clinical Presentations |
---|---|
Kidney | Acute or subacute kidney injury |
Renal infarction | |
Chronic kidney disease | |
Renal allograft failure | |
Severe hard-to-control hypertension | |
Extra-renal organs | |
Skin | Livedo reticularis |
Blue toe syndrome | |
Ulceration and gangrene | |
Purpura | |
Small nail bed infarcts | |
Leg, foot, or toe pain | |
Gastrointestinal System | Abdominal, flank, or back pain |
Gastrointestinal bleeding | |
Diarrhea | |
Bowel ischemia, infarction, and obstruction | |
Pancreatitis, cholecystitis, and abnormal liver tests | |
Splenic infarcts | |
Eyes | Amaurosis fugax |
Sudden blindness | |
Retinal plaques (Hollenhorst plaques) | |
Central Nervous System | Headache |
Amaurosis fugax | |
Stroke | |
Transient ischaemic attacks | |
Altered mental status | |
Paraparesis | |
Mononeuropathy | |
Cerebral infarction | |
Spinal cord infarction | |
Muscle | Muscle pain |
Arthralgias | |
Rhabdomyolysis | |
Systemic signs | |
Fever | |
Anorexia | |
Fatigue | |
Weight loss | |
Malaise | |
Myalgia |
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Li, X.; Bayliss, G.; Zhuang, S. Cholesterol Crystal Embolism and Chronic Kidney Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 1120. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18061120
Li X, Bayliss G, Zhuang S. Cholesterol Crystal Embolism and Chronic Kidney Disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2017; 18(6):1120. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18061120
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Xuezhu, George Bayliss, and Shougang Zhuang. 2017. "Cholesterol Crystal Embolism and Chronic Kidney Disease" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 18, no. 6: 1120. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18061120
APA StyleLi, X., Bayliss, G., & Zhuang, S. (2017). Cholesterol Crystal Embolism and Chronic Kidney Disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(6), 1120. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18061120