Lipid Nanotechnology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Lipid Nanotechnology
(1) Solid-supported lipid bilayer
(2) Polymer-supported lipid bilayer
(3) Pore-spanning lipid bilayer
(4) Protein incorporation into membranes
2.1. Lipid Nanomedicine
2.2. Lipid Nanofluidics
2.3. Lipid Nanoassemblies
2.4. Lipid Nanoelectronics and Photonics
3. Computational Lipid Nanotechnology
(1) Force-fields
(2) Atomistic force fields
(3) Coarse-grained force fields
3.1. Lipid-Based Nano-Structures in Silico
Flat and Curved Bilayers: Nano-Vesicles and Tubes
3.2. Membrane-Mediated Transport at the Nano Scale
3.2.1. Lipidic Nano-Pores and Pore-Induced Transport in Lipid Membranes
- Electric field poration. One of the best-known ways to create pores is by exerting electric potential differences to the membrane of a cell. Experimentally, electric pulses produced by high-energy lasers are applied to the cell membrane. Computationally, the proper potential difference across a membrane is produced either by applying a constant electric field [219–227], or by creating an ionic imbalance around the membrane, which causes an electric field responsible for pore formation [227–230]. As a result of the electric field, water molecules can penetrate into the membrane. The process of opening a pore usually starts by spreading of water molecules throughout the membrane. When water molecules permeate the membrane, some small water defects form around the lipid head groups. A pore will be later stabilized when the head groups move towards this initial pore. The pore then enlarges and becomes lined with lipid head groups and the head groups distribute evenly over the pore “surface” [218].
- Pore formation induced by mechanical stress. Mechanical stress such as osmotic swelling can also induce pore formation in lipid bilayer membranes. In this case pores are formed as a response of the membrane to the surface tension. To simulate a membrane under different levels of surface tension, one possibility is to change the surface density of lipids. Forming a pore requires a critical threshold surface strain, which depends on the lipid composition and environmental condition [189,218]. By estimating the free energy of the system, the stability of pores can be investigated. Several ways have been proposed to calculate free energy differences in membrane systems caused by pore formation. One possibility is to use constraint forces to calculate the free energy profile for pore formation as a function of pore radius [231–233]. Another option is to calculate the free energy of pore evolution by pushing a lipid molecule into the bilayer interior in a reversible manner [233]. During this process, a small water pore forms spontaneously.
- Pore formation in lipid membranes by peptides. One of the main pharmacological mechanisms for killing microbial cells is by antimicrobial peptides, which form pores in the bacterial cell membrane, leading to ion influx and cell death. Typically, amphipathic peptides containing lysine and arginine residues are able to induce pores. Pore formation occurs when the hydrophobic parts of the peptide are in contact with the lipid membrane and the polar residues face the water. Usually, formation of a toroidal membrane-spanning pore is the result of the cooperative self-assembly of five to six magainin (an antimicrobial peptide) molecules [163,218]. The first computational study of peptide-induced pores suggests that pores can be formed in a few nanoseconds [234,235]. Recent molecular dynamics simulation studies reported also a time scale between 10 to 100 nanoseconds for pore formation in the presence of enough peptide [236].
3.2.2. Fusion and Fission of Lipid Membranes
3.3. Lipid-Nano Device Interaction Studies
4. Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
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Nano-object | Size of the nano-object | Lipid | Lipid structure | Simulation time | Force field/Software | Water model | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gold Nanoparticle | Radius of gyration:11.45 Å, Gold core:11.13 Å | DPPC/DPPG (3:1) | Bilayer | 40 ns | MARTINI | P4 | [289] |
Fullerene | 1 nm | Pure DOPC, Pure DPPC | Bilayer | 88 μs | MARTINI | P4 | [290] |
C180, C60 C20 | 1.2, 0.72, 0.4 nm | Pure DPPC, Pure DLPC, Pure DSPC | Bilayer | 800 ns | MARTINI | P4 | [286] |
C60, C68H29 | 1.07 ×1.1 nm2 | DMPC/Cholesterol (3:1) | Bilayer | 1.1 ps | DL_POLY 2.17 GUI [291], UA-OPLS [292,293] GROMACS v.3.3.1 and v. 4.0.5 | TIP3P | [294] |
Graphene | 5.9 × 6.2 nm2 | POPC | Bilayer | 516 ns | MARTINI | P4 | [284] |
Graphene | 2.425 × 2.380 nm2 | CRPC | PC-Plate | 10 ns | GROMOS | SPC/E | [295] |
CNT | L = 2.35 nm, R = 1.87 nm | DMPC | Bilayer | 1.58ns | AMBER 96 | TIP3P | [296] |
Hydrophobic NP | 10 nm | DPPC | Bilayer | 20 ns | MARTINI | P4 | [42] |
Semihydrophilic NP | 10nm | DPPC | Bilayer | 15 ns | MARTINI | P4 | [42] |
CG NP | 6.8 nm | DPPC | Bilayer | 320 ns | MARTINI | P4 | [41] |
CNT | L = 20 Å, R = 10 Å | Pure POPC, POPC/Cholesterol (7:3) | Bilayer | 6 ns | CHARMM | TIP3 | [278] |
DWCNTs | L =33 Å, R =3.4Å | DMPC | Monomer | 3 ns | CHARM27 | TIP3 | [297] |
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Mashaghi, S.; Jadidi, T.; Koenderink, G.; Mashaghi, A. Lipid Nanotechnology. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 4242-4282. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14024242
Mashaghi S, Jadidi T, Koenderink G, Mashaghi A. Lipid Nanotechnology. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2013; 14(2):4242-4282. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14024242
Chicago/Turabian StyleMashaghi, Samaneh, Tayebeh Jadidi, Gijsje Koenderink, and Alireza Mashaghi. 2013. "Lipid Nanotechnology" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 14, no. 2: 4242-4282. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14024242