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Article

Hydrothermal Transformation of Organic Matter in the Case of Domanik Shale Deposits

by
Yaroslav Onishenko
1,
Arash Tajik
1,*,
Alexey Vakhin
1,
Aleksey Dengaev
2,
Facknwie Kahwir Oscar
1,
Sergey Sitnov
1,
Yulia Duglav
1,
Mustafa Ismaeel
1,
Oybek Mirzaev
1,3 and
Firdavs Aliev
1,*
1
Institute of Geology and Petroleum Technologies, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
2
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Gubkin National University of Oil and Gas, Leninskiy Prospect 65, 119991 Moscow, Russia
3
Department of Chemical Technology, Fergana State Technical University, Fergana 150100, Uzbekistan
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2026, 31(8), 1239; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31081239
Submission received: 11 March 2026 / Revised: 1 April 2026 / Accepted: 7 April 2026 / Published: 9 April 2026
(This article belongs to the Topic Petroleum and Gas Engineering, 2nd edition)
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Abstract

The presence of source rock with a high concentration of kerogen is not a sufficient condition for petroleum formation, as maturation requires specific thermodynamic conditions. In this study, the artificial maturation of organic matter was investigated through hydrothermal treatment simulating the vaporization–condensation zones associated with in situ combustion and steam-assisted recovery processes. The experiments were conducted under an inert nitrogen atmosphere at 250–350 °C to reproduce oxygen-depleted thermal environments where hydrothermal reactions dominate. The results demonstrate that the bitumoid yield increases with temperature, reaching a maximum of 4.44 wt.% at 300 °C, followed by a decline at 350 °C due to secondary cracking. At the same time, gas generation increases significantly, with a more than five-fold rise in total gas yield between 250 and 350 °C. In parallel, the H/C atomic ratio of kerogen decreases from 1.17 in the initial sample to 0.52 at 350 °C, indicating progressive aromatization and advanced catagenetic transformation. These changes are accompanied by the conversion of high-molecular-weight kerogen into resins, asphaltenes, and subsequently lighter hydrocarbons. The study provides experimental evidence for the effectiveness of hydrothermal processes in inducing kerogen transformation under inert conditions, offering insights into the mechanisms governing artificial maturation in unconventional reservoirs.
Keywords: Volga–Ural petroleum province; Domanik shales; kerogen; pyrolysis; maturation; aquathermolysis; hydrothermal treatment Volga–Ural petroleum province; Domanik shales; kerogen; pyrolysis; maturation; aquathermolysis; hydrothermal treatment

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MDPI and ACS Style

Onishenko, Y.; Tajik, A.; Vakhin, A.; Dengaev, A.; Oscar, F.K.; Sitnov, S.; Duglav, Y.; Ismaeel, M.; Mirzaev, O.; Aliev, F. Hydrothermal Transformation of Organic Matter in the Case of Domanik Shale Deposits. Molecules 2026, 31, 1239. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31081239

AMA Style

Onishenko Y, Tajik A, Vakhin A, Dengaev A, Oscar FK, Sitnov S, Duglav Y, Ismaeel M, Mirzaev O, Aliev F. Hydrothermal Transformation of Organic Matter in the Case of Domanik Shale Deposits. Molecules. 2026; 31(8):1239. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31081239

Chicago/Turabian Style

Onishenko, Yaroslav, Arash Tajik, Alexey Vakhin, Aleksey Dengaev, Facknwie Kahwir Oscar, Sergey Sitnov, Yulia Duglav, Mustafa Ismaeel, Oybek Mirzaev, and Firdavs Aliev. 2026. "Hydrothermal Transformation of Organic Matter in the Case of Domanik Shale Deposits" Molecules 31, no. 8: 1239. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31081239

APA Style

Onishenko, Y., Tajik, A., Vakhin, A., Dengaev, A., Oscar, F. K., Sitnov, S., Duglav, Y., Ismaeel, M., Mirzaev, O., & Aliev, F. (2026). Hydrothermal Transformation of Organic Matter in the Case of Domanik Shale Deposits. Molecules, 31(8), 1239. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31081239

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