1. Introduction
The success of
cis-diaminedichloroplatinum (II) (cisplatin) and of the second-generation derivatives carboplatin and oxaliplatin has opened a new perspective for the development of metal-based drugs for the treatment of several solid tumors [
1]. Although this class of chemotherapeutic agents has a broad anticancer spectrum and is also used in combination, their systemic toxicity and tumor drug resistance have encouraged ongoing research for new metal-based drugs. Over the years, organotin compounds (i.e., nonplatinum but tin-containing substances) have been investigated in different models as potential anticancer drug candidates [
2]. Originally, organotin compounds, formed by linking tin directly with an organic substituent, were generally known for their environmental toxicity and used as biocides, fungicides, and pesticides, and to preserve paints for marine vessels [
3]. Over the past century, several organotin derivatives have been synthesized and tested in vitro and in vivo for their toxicities [
4,
5,
6] and anticancer activities [
7]. Several organotin derivatives were designed by variations of the organic moieties and donor ligands linked to the metal to obtain more antiproliferative compounds [
8]. This approach has given rise to several diorganotin and triorganotin (IV) compounds tested in different in vitro models with various results.
In particular, tributyltin (TBT) compounds were shown to induce cell death through different mechanisms. Exposure of cortical neurons to TBT chloride (TBT-Cl) reduced the phosphorylation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), triggering cell death preceded by autophagy [
9]. Treatment of Jurkat cells with bis(tributylin) oxide (TBT-O) induced reticulum endoplasmic stress followed by NF-kB and T-cell activation and apoptosis [
10]. Both TBT-Cl and triphenyltin (TPT) chloride (TPT-Cl) increased BAX expression in human estrogen and a receptor-positive breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 cell line [
11]. In particular, TBT-Cl stimulated p53 expression and BCL-2 downregulation in tumor cells more than TPT-Cl, thus presumably influencing the route towards regulated cell death (RCD) [
11].
More recently, several structure-based approaches have been taken to improve organotin compounds’ cytotoxic and potential anticancer activities. Several structures involving diorganotin and carboxylate, carbamate, amide, thiolate, and dithiocarbamate ligands improved stability and water solubility. Dibutyltin(IV) compounds induced cell death independently of p53 [
12]. Tribenzyltin carboxylates complexes were shown to induce caspase activation and morphological changes related to apoptosis in the MCF-7, MDA-MB231, and 4T1 cell lines [
13], while TBT(IV) carboxylates induced selective cytotoxicity versus the THP-1 and HEP-2G cell lines [
14]. Di- and triphenyltin(IV) dithiocarbamates were shown to be cytotoxic and antiproliferative towards an erythroleukemia cell line [
2]. Exposure of human NT2/D1 embryonic carcinoma cells to TBT induced a decrease in AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), leading to the impairment of glucose metabolism and uptake [
15]. TBT and TPT derivatives induced apoptosis by decreasing BCL-2 expression and increasing BAX expression, but they exerted a negligible effect on P-gp efflux activity [
16]. In addition, the conjugation of organotin compounds with compounds of different origins has been attempted to increase their biological activity, showing potent cytotoxic activity associated with the inhibition of DNA synthesis, apoptosis, and autophagy induction [
17,
18]. Similarly, the synthesis of novel TPT(IV) compounds conjugated with oxaprozin or propionic acid derivatives were shown to be cytotoxic versus the PC-3, HEP2G, HT-29, and MCF-7 cell lines, very likely owing to the induction of NO/ROS production and autophagosome formation following the high rate of tin uptake in comparison to platinum [
19]. Conjugation with a carbohydrate-based scaffold or natural compounds was shown to improve organotin compounds’ solubility and potential anticancer activities. Di- and triorganotin compounds conjugated to D-(+)-galacturonic acid were reported to be cytotoxic versus MCF-7 and HCT-116 at submicromolar concentrations by affecting the mitochondrial transmembrane potential (Δψm) [
20]. TBT(IV) ferulate (TBT-F), resulting from the conjugation of organotin with a ferulic acid natural compound with antioxidant properties, acquired pro-oxidant properties once conjugated with TBT(IV). This led to an increase in the biological activity of TBT-F by inducing autophagy through ER stress caused by ROS production in colon cancer cells [
21,
22]. Further studies have elucidated the effects of TBT or triphenyl tin (TPT) in vivo. A TPT carboxylate derivative counteracted the tumorigenesis of prostate cancer cells (PCa) in vivo in transgenic mice through the inhibition of AKT signaling [
23], without notable toxic effects.
Thus, despite most authors focusing on the induction of the apoptotic form of RCD as the main mechanism possibly involved in the potential anticancer effect of organotin compounds [
24,
25,
26], the range of molecular targets presumably involved is highly heterogeneous and awaits further studies and clarifications. Moreover, given the multiple potential activities of organotin derivatives towards cancer cells, the relationships among structures, physiochemical properties, and biological activities of this class of compounds, and whether a difference exists in the effect they exert on nontumorigenic cells compared with tumorigenic cells are still elusive.
In the present study, we explored the physiochemical properties of TBT-O and TBT-Cl derivatives in a hydrophilic environment and their dose-dependent cytotoxic effects towards representative high-tumorigenic and nontumorigenic cells in comparison with a tributyltin trifluoroacetate (TBT-OCOCF3). This organotin compound was specially designed and synthetized to find a possible balance between toxicity and feasible antitumor activity. The possible mechanisms involved in the effects exerted by the compound on cell death were also investigated. Finally, based on the obtained results, a strategy of a combination treatment specifically aimed at enhancing the potential anticancer activity of similar organotin compounds is proposed.
3. Discussion
The present in vitro comparative study shows that tributyltin derivatives were able to differently but always strongly affect cell proliferation, cell viability, and cell death in a tumorigenic, as well as in a nontumorigenic, cell line.
The biological activity of organotin(IV) compounds should depend on different features, such as the nature of the organic moiety and donor ligands attached to the tin atoms. Therefore, in this study, the major chemical physical parameters of the studied compounds were first ascertained. In particular, the solubility of the compounds in hydrophilic environments was checked through NMR before analyzing their biological effects. The NMR data show that a broad dose–effect range lower than the threshold of the solubility in phosphate buffer could be effectively utilized in biological assays with the tributyltin compounds. In any case, TBT compounds were dissolved in DMSO to make stock solutions for storage at concentrations high enough to warrant dilutions of at least 1/1000 with phosphate buffer before their use for in vitro and in vivo assays. Moreover, the results indicate that, in general, except for TBT-Cl, both TBT-OCOCF3 and TBT-O did not remain aggregated at the concentrations utilized for the biological assays.
Regarding the biological activity, to obtain information on the possible anticancer potential of the tributyltin derivatives, as a first approach, the effects of the compounds on the cellular metabolic activity and on the cell viability of a tumorigenic and a nontumorigenic cell line were investigated. The effects towards PBMCs from healthy individuals and towards the nonadherent U937 cell line were also investigated for comparison. The results of this part of the study undoubtedly reveal the high cytotoxic properties of the tributyltin compounds. Among the three tested tributyltins, TBT-Cl was found to be significantly and equally highly inhibitory for the metabolic activity (IC50 of approximately 1 µM) and cytotoxic both at high and low concentrations versus all tested cell lines. This might be owing to the electronegative characteristic of the chloride ion, which enhances the reactivity of the metal by attracting the electron cloud. Conversely, TBT-OCOCF3 and TBT-O inhibited the metabolic activity similarly in all cell lines at higher values between 2 µM and 4 µM. In particular, TBT-OCOCF3 (i.e., the synthesized tributyltin whose chemical and biological features were defined for the first time in this study) reduced the number of intact cells recovered after treatment in a dose–effect fashion and, to a lesser extent, in the MCF-10A cells with respect to the CAL-27 cells. Nevertheless, all cell lines assayed were more resistant to cisplatin treatment in comparison with the tributyltin derivatives. Although these results provide a clear picture of the high cytotoxic potential of tributyltins, they did not, however, provide sufficient information on events triggered by the compounds in the cells underpinning this cytotoxic activity. The substantial decrease in the metabolic activity, as assessed by the MTT assay, corresponds to an evident decrease in the number of cells in an active phase of their life. Nevertheless, this could be due to a metabolic block, to block in their cell cycle, to the entering of a high number of cells on the road towards one of the forms of RCD, or simply to the disappearance of intact cells in the treated samples due to the fact of their bursting because of primary or secondary necrosis. Even the trypan blue assays, despite demonstrating that the lowering of the metabolic activity was strictly associated with the lowering of the number of cells showing plasma membrane integrity, were helpful in elucidating this aspect. Unexpectedly, in our assays, the decrease in trypan-blue-negative, intact, and presumably viable cells was not balanced by a concomitant corresponding increase in trypan-blue-positive, intact, and presumably dead cells. On the other hand, viable trypan-blue-negative cells could not be distinguished from early apoptotic cells that they too were trypan blue negative, nor were the cells undergoing forms of RCD different from apoptosis with a loss of plasma membrane integrity distinguishable from primary or secondary necrotic cells, which were all trypan-blue-positive.
Thus, based on the results of the first part of the study, the successive phases mainly focused on the novel TBT-OCOCF
3 derivative, on its potentiality as a prototype anticancer candidate, on the attempt to characterize its cytotoxicity precisely, and, more specifically, on the type of induced cell death. However, a complex scenario was also found as a result of this part of the study. Experiments performed in the tumorigenic and nontumorigenic cells under study showed that a quite evident percentage of dead cells following TBT-OCOCF
3 treatment could be detectable only at higher concentrations of approximately 20 µM. In these experimental conditions, however, only a very low amount of total still-intact cells could be recovered after 24 h from the treated samples. Nevertheless, to understand which form of cell death could be induced by TBT-OCOCF
3 at the concentration mentioned above, cells with features of early and late apoptotic RCD and of necrotic death were distinguished by flow cytometry analysis following annexin-V/7AAD double staining early after treatment. The results show that a noticeable percentage of the MCF-10A cells that were recovered after 4 h of treatment with TBT-OCOCF
3 at 20 µM had the characteristics of early apoptosis. Nevertheless, a high percentage of cells were positive for both annexin-V and 7-AAD or for 7-AAD alone, indicating a coexistence of cells resembling early apoptotic, late apoptotic, and primary and secondary necrotic cells. Interestingly, the complexity of cell death induced by TBT was observed in a previous study demonstrating that at least two independent pathways were implicated in caspase-3-independent neuronal cell death caused by this compound [
31].
Even though our results add an expected complexity to the phenomena under investigation (i.e., the actual fate of cells exposed to the selected tributyltin), they helped to address our efforts towards understanding, at least in part, the mechanisms that could control this network of cell-death-regulating signaling. Some key points concerning this aspect were defined. For example, our results demonstrate that cytotoxicity induced by the assayed triorganotin derivatives was found not to be owing to DNA binding. Indeed, unlike cisplatin, TBT-OCOCF
3 does not bind DNA, as demonstrated by the NMR analysis. This finding opens the way for developing TBT-OCOCF
3-based compounds as potential anticancer agents in cisplatin-resistant tumors. Moreover, the cell cycle analysis showed that the cytotoxicity induced by TBT-OCOCF
3 was associated with a block in the G0/G1 and G2 phases and to the entry in the sub-G1 phase for the few intact cells that could be recovered after the treatment. Conversely, a very low percentage of cells were in the S phase. Similar findings were reported by other authors, who demonstrated that halogenated tin phosphinoyldithioformate complex-derived compounds induced the inhibition of proliferation but not accumulation in the S phase of the cell cycle [
32]. Furthermore, the anticancer activity of di- and triorganotin(IV) compounds associated with D-(+)-galacturonic acid was reported to be associated with a block in the G0/G1 phase [
20]. Therefore, our data and those reported by other authors lead us to conclude that even cells that can overcome the cytotoxicity after exposure to organotin compounds cannot proliferate at all, thus explaining the extremely low number of cells recovered by us following treatment and, most importantly, supporting their possible development as anticancer agents.
Another point of our study is the finding of a certain relationship between the cytotoxicity and the inhibition of the glucose metabolism of tin derivatives. We showed that TBT-OCOCF
3 is more effective in inhibiting glucose uptake in tumorigenic than in nontumorigenic cell lines. Glucose is a primary font of energy, and a hypothetical association between glucose metabolism and the effects of triorganotin derivatives was demonstrated in the human pluripotent embryonic carcinoma cell line NT2/D1 in which exposure to tributyltin inhibited glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate production via the inhibition of the transporter GLUT-1 [
15]. In our model, CAL-27 exhibited a higher expression of membrane GLUT-1 with respect to MCF-10A cells (data not shown). Given that the dysregulation of the energy metabolism is a fundamental hallmark of cancer cells [
33] and that glycolysis-related cancer cell survival is mediated by glucose transporters upregulated in some types of cancer [
34], our results could suggest that compounds similar to TBT-OCOCF
3 could selectively act as cell-death inducers in tumors but not in normal cells. Nevertheless, it should be noted that TBT-OCOCF
3 markedly decreased the number of viable cells at concentrations that did not significantly affect glucose uptake. Thus, the role of the inhibition of glucose metabolism in the cytotoxicity exerted by tin compounds has yet to be elucidated.
The other key point addressed in our study is that a crosstalk between autophagy and cell death could be one intricate cell regulatory process triggered by tributyltins. The role of autophagy in controlling the fate of cancer cells is still a debated topic [
30,
35]. Autophagy is a double-edged sword whose activation/inhibition could favor tumor exhaustion [
36]. Due to the evidence indicating a strict interaction between cell signaling controlling autophagy and different forms of cell death, including RCD and necrosis [
37,
38,
39], targeting autophagy has been proposed as a new, possible strategy for anticancer therapy [
40,
41]. To better define events controlling tributyltin-induced cytotoxicity in CAL-27 cells—in fact, to address the possible regulatory role of autophagy—we utilized a cotreatment with an autophagy inhibitor, wortmannin. The results of our experiments in CAL-27 cells showed a low percentage of annexin-V+/7AAD- positive cells following treatment with TBT-OCOCF
3 alone, as expected, but the cotreatment with wortmannin led to the detection of an increased number of cells showing features of dead cells, including approximately 29% of annexin-V-/7AAD+ cells. This indicates a proneness to undergoing various forms of cell death, particularly necrosis, in tumorigenic cells in which signaling driving the autophagic flux was inhibited. Of fundamental importance, in this respect, for the continuation of the study was the utilization of nonadherent U937 cells as an experimental model, being more versatile for such an investigation. Even in the U937 cells, cotreatment with wortmannin significantly increased the percentage of dead cells treated with TBT-OCOCF
3 with respect to those treated with TBT-OCOCF
3 alone. In this case, it was possible to define that the increase in the number of dead cells should mainly be ascribed to cells resembling apoptotic cells. Interestingly, a shift of U937 towards a functional phenotype more susceptible to cell death due the fact of wortmannin cotreatment was observed even with low concentrations of TBT-OCOCF
3 and/or a short incubation time. However, the hypothesis that the levels of tributyltin-induced signaling driving towards apoptotic RCD should be negatively controlled by a concomitant triggering of autophagy was not confirmed by experiments finalized to prove this hypothesis directly. In the U937 cells, a low concentration of TBT-OCOCF
3 plus wortmannin induced twice the percentage of cells showing apoptotic features with respect to TBT-OCOCF
3 alone, but no sign of autophagic flux induction was observed as a consequence of tributyltin treatment. Wortmannin has been shown to inhibit autophagy through its well-known ability to suppress the class III phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), thus blocking the phosphorylation of phosphatidyl inositol (PI) that generates phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P), whose production is essential for the initiation of autophagy [
42,
43]. However, in our model, the inhibitory effect of wortmannin on autophagy seems not to be involved in the increase in the cytotoxic response. Thus, the effect of wortmannin in counteracting resistance to undergoing death in tumor cells might still be owing to its specific role of inhibiting the PI3K/AKT pathway. This pathway has been indicated as a central cellular mechanism for the phosphorylation of factors involved in the survival and migration of tumor cells [
44]. In addition, the PI3/AKT kinase mammalian target of the rapamycin (mTOR) pathway is altered in HNSCC tumors, and agents targeting it are in clinical development to be used in combination treatment with chemotherapy [
45]. Moreover, it has been recently reported that the conjugation of tributyltin with natural phenolic phytochemicals, such as ferulic acid (i.e., a ligand moiety absent within the TBT-OCOCF
3 structure), induced an increase in LC3II and p62 autophagic proteins that preceded cell death in colon cancer cells but neither apoptotic nor necroptotic cell death [
21]. Interestingly, tumorigenic CAL-27 cells seem to undergo cell death through necrosis rather than apoptotic RCD following tributyltin treatment. In any case, our study, although it does not explain the effect of wortmannin, clearly indicates that a pharmacological intervention acting on the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway could dramatically potentiate the cytotoxic potential of TBT. Importantly, such a combination treatment seems able to overcome the resistance of tumor cells to the induction of death by tributyltins and to drive the fate of the treated cells towards a more specific and effective route of RCD.
This study established for the first time that the mechanisms underlying the induction of cell death by tributyltin derivatives seem unexpectedly very multifaceted. Based on our results, the induction of RCD or necrotic-related processes by TBT seems to not be a univocal phenomenon but rather an occurrence greatly dependent on the target cells, on the specific scaffold of the structure of the chemical derivatives, and on the concomitant modulation of specific cellular signaling pathways. Future studies are necessary to elucidate further the exact mechanisms underlying the cytotoxic effect of triorganotin derivatives and to promote the development of novel tributyltin compounds as anticancer agents.
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Synthesis of Tributyltin Trifluoroacetate, Chemicals, and Reagents
The synthesis of tributyltin trifluoroacetate (TBT-OCOCF3) was performed by the dropwise addition of TFA (0.04 mL, 0.5 mmol) to (Bu3Sn)2O (0.13 mL, 0.25 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 25 min and evaporated under reduced pressure to obtain a white solid. The compound was recrystallized from hexane and characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and IR. Stability tests in deuterated solvents, such as CDCl3, CD3OD, D2O, and d6-DMSO, at 37 °C were conducted by recording the 1H NMR spectra at regular intervals. In all cases, no change in the 1H NMR spectra was observed even after several weeks.
IR (neat): ν = 2959, 2926, 2859, 1653, 1445, 1192, 1150, and 727 cm−1.
1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.73–1.54 (m, 6H), 1.49–1.23 (m, 12H), 0.92 (t, J = 7.3 Hz, 9H); 13C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl3) δ 161.2 (q, J19F/13C = 39.3 Hz), 115.1 (q, J19F/13C = 288.1 Hz), 27.4 (td, J119Sn/13C = 21.3 Hz), 26.9 (tdd, J119Sn/13C = 65.2 Hz, J117Sn/13C = 62.4 Hz), and 17.3 (tdd, J119Sn/13C = 337.9 Hz, J117Sn/13C = 332.9 Hz) ppm.
1H NMR (400 MHz, CD3OD) δ 1.83–1.47 (m, 6H), 1.47–1.13 (m, 12H), 0.92 (t, J = 7.3 Hz, 9H) ppm.
1H NMR (400 MHz, D2O) δ 1.60–1.35 (m, 6H), 1.31–1.00 (m, 12H), 0.88–0.65 (m, 9H) ppm.
1H NMR (400 MHz, d6-DMSO) δ 1.68–1.38 (m, 6H), 1.36–1.18 (m, 6H), 1.18–0.96 (m, 6H), 0.84 (t, J = 7.3 Hz, 9H) ppm.
TBT-O, TBT-Cl, and cisplatin were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (San Diego, CA, USA). All tributyltin compounds were diluted in DMSO and stored at 1 M before their utilization for the biological assays. Wortmannin (Sigma-Aldrich) was diluted in DMSO and stored at 100 mM.
In all experiments carried out with the TBT compounds, the control cells were exposed, for the same amount of time as the treated cells, to control diluent alone corresponding to the higher concentration of the compounds assayed.
4.2. Cells
The high-tumorigenic human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), adherent CAL-27 cells, and nonadherent U937 lymphoblastoid cells were maintained in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 50 U/mL streptomycin, 50 U/mL penicillin, and 2 mM glutamine (CM; Gibco-Invitrogen, Paisley, Scotland, United Kingdom) in a humidified incubator at 37 °C and 5% CO2. The nontumorigenic human mammary epithelial MCF-10A cells (ATCC, NIH, MD) were kept in DMEM-F12, (Lonza, Switzerland) supplemented with 5% horse serum (Invitrogen, Thermo-Scientific, CA, USA), 0.5 µg/mL hydrocortisone, 50 ng/mL cholera toxin, 0.01 mg/mL human insulin (Sigma-Aldrich), 50 U penicillin/streptomycin, and 2 µg/mL epidermal growth factor (EGF, Tebu-Bio, Le-Perray-en-Yvelines, France). The PBMCs were isolated from the buffy coat collected from healthy adult donor volunteers, who were seronegative for HIV and hepatitis B and C viruses, enrolled in the Polyclinic Hospital Tor Vergata Transfusion Center for blood donation for therapeutic purpose. The donors authorized the use of the remaining leukocytes for research purposes, signing a consent form. Anonymized buffy coats were diluted in phosphate buffered saline at pH 7 (PBS), and mononuclear cells were separated using a Ficoll–Hypaque density gradient (Cederlane, Hornby, Ontario, Canada) at a ratio of cells:gradient of 1:2. The cells were then centrifuged for 30 min at 1800 RPM and washed twice in RPMI 1640 medium (Gibco-Invitrogen). The PBMCs were stimulated with IL-2 at 10 U/mL (Proleukin, Chiron, Amsterdam, the Netherlands) before treatment with the compounds under study.
4.3. Metabolic Activity and Viability Assay
The inhibition of cell metabolic activity, revealed by the reduction of the oxidative burst, was performed through a colorimetric method based on the reduction of tetrazolium salt MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, Sigma-Aldrich), with the formation of formazan crystals solubilized following the addition of SDS lysis buffer. The MTT reagent was diluted in sterile PBS (phosphate buffered saline) and stored at a concentration of 5 mg/mL, while 20 g of SDS was diluted in 100 mL solution composed of 50 mL bidistilled water and 50 mL dimethylformamide (Sigma-Aldrich). The assay was performed by seeding 5 × 103 cells in 100 µL into a 96-well plate in the presence or absence of different concentrations of organotin compounds and the reference drug. After 18 h of incubation at 37 °C, 10 µL of MTT was added, and, after 6 h, 100 µL of SDS was added. After overnight incubation, the optical density was read by a spectrophotometer (Packard, Spectral Count Microplate Photometer) at the wavelength of 570 nanometers. The amount of formazan produced was directly proportional to the number of alive cells. The results are expressed as the drug concentration required to inhibit 50% of the metabolic activity ± standard deviation (IC50 ± SD). The concentrations of the compounds to be tested and the length of the incubation time for the MTT assay were chosen based on preliminary experiments showing IC50 values in the low micromolar range for TBT at 24 h and very small amounts of cells still detectable after longer incubation times. A viability assay was performed using the trypan blue exclusion test, with the concentrations of the compounds and timing selected on the basis of the MTT assay and preliminary trypan blue exclusion tests.
4.4. NMR Spectroscopy
For the NMR studies, the compounds were dissolved in DMSO-d6 and a phosphate buffer (50 mM, 5% D
2O, pH = 7.4) containing, as an internal standard, 2,2,4,4-tetradeuterumtrimethylsilylpropionic acid (TSP). The NMR experiments were performed in D
2O at 25 °C and recorded with a Bruker Avance spectrometer operating at 700 MHz for
1H, equipped with a 5 mm inverse TXI probe, z-axis gradients, and a Sample Xpress Lite autosampler. The
1H-NMR spectra were recorded with a spectral window of 15 ppm, 16 k complex points, and a relaxation delay of 10 s for a total of 16 transients. The
1H-
1H COSY experiments were acquired with spectral windows of 13 × 11 ppm (carrier frequency of 5 ppm) using 2048 × 128 data points, 2 transients, and a relaxation delay of 2 s. The
1H-
13C HSQC experiments were acquired with spectral windows of 13 × 70 ppm (carrier frequencies of 5 and 30 ppm) using 4096 × 56 data points, 4 transients, and a relaxation delay of 2 s. The
1H-
1H TOCSY experiments, implemented with an excitation sculpting scheme for the water suppression [
46], were conducted with spectral windows of 20 × 19 ppm (carrier frequency of 4.7 ppm) using 4096 × 256 data points, 24 transients, relaxation delay of 2 s, and a mixing time of 80 ms.
The solubility was determined by preparing a 600 µL solution for each compound in DMSO and buffer solution with a nominal concentration of 400 µM. The effective concentrations were measured at 37 °C using 3-(trimethylsilyl) propionic 2,2,3,3-d4 acid (TSP) as an internal standard.
4.5. Glucose Uptake
To evaluate the glucose uptake, both the CAL-27 and MCF-10 A cell lines were seeded at 2 × 105 in 24 plates and incubated overnight at 37 °C. After 24 h, the cells were washed in warm PBS at pH 7.4 and diluted in media without glucose for 40 min. The cells were then washed in PBS and resuspended in suitable complete media and treated with different concentrations of the compounds to assay and incubated with a fluorescent glucose analog (2-deoxy-2-[(7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)amino] D-glucose) (2-NBDG) (Sigma-Aldrich) for 1 h at 37 °C. At the end of incubation, the cells were detached through a trypsin solution and PBS-EDTA (without Ca2+ and Mg), washed in PBS, resuspended in FACS flow, and analyzed with flow cytometry through the software Cell Quest (BD Bioscience).
4.6. Cell Death and Autophagy
Early RCD-related events were detected through double staining of the cells with fluorescent annexin-V, which preferentially binds phosphatidylserine that appears very early in apoptosis at the external cell surface, and with 7-amino actinomycin D (7-AAD) solution, as a viability dye. The “Annexin V-FITC Kit 7-AAD KiT” (IM3614, Beckman Coulter) was used according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, 5 × 105 cells were incubated for 15 min with annexin-V-fluorescein isothiocyanate and washed in annexin buffer. Cells were then stained with 7-AAD and analyzed immediately after staining by flow cytometry analysis. The data acquisition and analyses were performed using CytExpert 2.0 (Beckman Coulter, United States) on at least 150,000 events for each sample.
Apoptotic RCD was evaluated in U937 cells by morphological analysis following staining with Hoechst chromatin dye, as previously described [
47].
Autophagy was evaluated in the U937 cells using the Autophagy Assay kit from Abcam (ab139484, Abcam, Cambridge, UK) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. In particular, the kit can measure autophagic vacuoles and monitor autophagic flux in live cells using an optimized dye that selectively labels autophagic vacuoles. The 488 nm excitable fluorescent green detection reagent (i.e., green dye) supplied in the kit becomes brightly fluorescent in vesicles produced during autophagy. The nuclear counterstain DAPI (i.e., nuclear dye) is provided in the kit as well to highlight cellular nuclei. The cells were seeded in 24-well plates at a density of 0.5 × 106 cells/mL and treated with vehicle, wortmannin (Sigma-Aldrich W1628), TBT-OCOCF3, or a combination of the two for 6 and 18 h. As a positive control, cells were treated for 18 h with the autophagy-inducer rapamycin (Sigma-Aldrich R0395) alone or in combination with the inhibitor wortmannin. At the end of the treatment, samples were collected, washed with 1X assay buffer, and incubated with 100 μL of a dual-detection reagent (1X fluorescent green reagent plus 1X nuclear dye in assay buffer) for 30 min at 37 °C in the dark. Next, the cells were carefully washed three times, and the fluorescence intensity was measured using an appropriate filter set for a fluorescent green reagent (excitation: 463 nm/emission: 534 nm) and nuclear dye (excitation: 350 nm/emission: 461 nm) in a Fluoroskan microplate reader (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The autophagic green fluorescence intensity was expressed as the fold change with respect to the control cells using values of the relative fluorescence units (RFUs) measured for green fluorescence normalized to the RFUs measured for the nuclear dye fluorescence in the same sample to control for any change in the number of cells in the samples subjected to different treatments. After washing, aliquots of stained cells were also analyzed by fluorescence microscopy (Leica Leitz DMRE, Wetzlar, Germany). For each sample, images from the same field were taken with a green (for green autophagy-specific reagent) or blue filter (for nuclear stain). Representative fields were photographed using 400× magnification.
4.7. Statistical Analysis
The data analysis was performed using the SPSS statistical software system (version 17.0 for Windows, Chicago, IL, USA). The data were assessed using parametric one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The statistical significance of the differences among groups were calculated using Bonferroni’s post hoc multiple comparison methods. The results of the statistical tests are reported in the figures and tables.