Recent Research on Cannabis sativa L.: Phytochemistry, New Matrices, Cultivation Techniques, and Recent Updates on Its Brain-Related Effects (2018–2023)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Secondary Metabolites of Cannabis
2.1. Cannabinoids
2.2. Terpenoids
2.3. Polyphenols
2.4. Alkaloids
3. Alternative Cannabis Matrices
3.1. Cannabis Roots
3.2. Cannabis Seeds and Seedhulls
3.3. Cannabis Leaves as Functional Foods
4. Cultivation Techniques Especially Effective on Cannabis sativa—Recent Updates
4.1. The State of the Art
4.2. Soilless Growing Technologies Applied to Cannabis: Hydroponic, Aquaponic, and Aeroponic Cultivation—Recent Updates
4.3. LED Lighting Techniques
4.4. Cannabis Symbiotic Microorganisms: A Yet Unexplored Scenario
5. Brain-Related Effects of Cannabis Use: Risks and Beneficial Impact in Users and Patients
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Code | Name | Formula | MW a |
---|---|---|---|
Δ9-THC | δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol | C21H30O2 | 314.55 |
Δ8-THC | δ-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol | C21H30O2 | 314.52 |
Δ9-THCP | (−)-trans-Tetrahydrocannabiphorol | C23H34O2 | 342.52 |
THCV | Tetrahydrocannabivarin | C19H26O2 | 286.45 |
Δ9-THCA-A | δ-9-Tetraidrocannabinolic acid A | C22H30O4 | 358.47 |
NA b | Anhydrocannabimovone | C21H28O3 | 328.51 |
CBN | Cannabinol | C21H26O2 | 310.43 |
7-OH-CBD | 7-Hydroxycannabinol | C21H30O3 | 330.46 |
CBNA | Cannabinolic acid | C22H30O4 | 358.47 |
CBD | Cannabidiol | C21H30O2 | 314.46 |
CBDD | Cannabidiol dimethyl ether | C23H34O2 | 342.52 |
CBD-C2 | Cannabidiorcol | C17H22O2 | 258.35 |
CBD-DER1 | 1,2-Dihydroxycannabidiol | C21H33O4 | 348.36 |
CBD-DER2 | 3,4-Dehydro-1,2-dihydroxycannabidin | C21H31O3 | 330.37 |
CBD-DER3 | Hexocannabitriol | C21H3104 | 348.64 |
CBC | Cannabichromene | C21H30O2 | 314.46 |
CBG | Cannabigerol | C21H32O2 | 316.48 |
CNM | Cannabimovone | C21H30O4 | 346.46 |
CBND | Cannabinodol | C21H26O2 | 310.43 |
CBE | Cannabielsoin | C21H30O4 | 346.46 |
CBF | Cannabifuran | C21H26O2 | 310.24 |
CBL | Cannabicyclol | C21H30O2 | 314.46 |
CBT | Cannabitriol | C21H30O3 | 330.46 |
CBR | Cannabiripsol | C21H32O4 | 348.23 |
CBCA | Cannabichromenic acid | C22H30O4 | 358.21 |
CBGA | Cannabigerolic acid | C22H32O4 | 360.49 |
CBDA | Cannabidiolic acid | C22H30O4 | 358.47 |
CBDP | Cannabiphorol | C23H34O2 | 342.52 |
CBDD | Cannabitwinol | C43H60O4 | 64033 |
CBDV | Cannabidivarin (Cannabidivarol) | C19H22O2 | 282.38 |
CBTC | Cannabicitran | C21H30O2 | 314.46 |
THCA/CBDA | >1 | Chemotype I |
<1 | Chemotype III | |
>1–<1 | Chemotype II | |
High CBGA | Chemotype IV | |
No cannabinoids | Chemotype V |
Monoterpenes | |||||
α-Thujene | Sabinene | α-Pinene | Camphene | α-Terpinene | β-Myrcene |
β-Pinene | α-Phellandrene | 1,8-Cineole | (Z)-β-Ocimene | (E)-β-Ocimene | p-Cymene |
Limonene | Δ3-Carene | α-Terpinene | γ-Terpinene | Fenchone | Terpinolene |
Terpinen-4-ol | Linalool | Fenchol | Camphor | Isoborneol | Borneol |
Menthol | α-Terpineol | Citronellol | Pulegone | Geranyl acetate | p-Cymenene |
Geraniol | Nerol | Geranial | Neral | 2-Heptnone | Heptanal |
2-Pinen-10-ol | p-Cymen-8-ol | trans-Pinocarveol | Myrtenol | Linalool acetate | Safranal |
Sesquiterpenes | |||||
α-Ylangene | α-Copaene | β-Elemene | β-Longipinene | Z-Caryophyllene | β-Caryophyllene |
α-Longipinene | α-Humulene | β-Guaiene | β-Acoradiene | γ-Himachalene | α-Selinene |
β-Himacalene | δ-Amorphene | γ-Cadinene | δ-Cadinene | α-Cadinene | E-Nerolidol |
Germacrene B | Spathunelol | Viridiflorol | Ledol | Humulene epoxide | epi-α-Bisabolol |
α-Cedrene | Cedrol | β-Eudesmol | α-Bisabolol | Valencene | α-Calacorene |
β-Patchoulene | γ-Gurjunene | α-Curcumene | β-Selinene | γ-Gurjunene | Globulol |
Sativene | α-Santalene | Sesquithujene | α-Zingiberene | β-Curcumene | Palustrol |
Iso-Caryophyllene | α-Bulnesene | Aromadendrene | 6,9-Guaiadiene | Iso-Valencenol | γ-Muurolene |
Dehydro-aromadendrene | β-cis-Farnesene | Caryophyllene oxide | α-cis-Bergamotene | α-trans-Bergamotene | Allo-aromadendrene |
Not Terpenoidic Compounds | |||||
2-Heptanone | Heptanal | Hexyl hexanoate | Nonanal | Eugenol | Estragol |
Cannabinoids | |||||
Cannabidivarol | Cannabicitran | Cannabidiol | Cannabichromene | Cannabigerol | Δ-9-THC |
Code | Name | Formula |
---|---|---|
Epilepsy (Lennox–Gastaut and Dravet syndromes) | Cannabidiol (Epidiolex®) | Phase III, Regulatory approval |
Chronic pain | THC, nabiximols | Phase II RCTs |
Schizophrenia | CBD | Phase II |
Sleep disturbance | THC, nabilone, nabiximols | Phase II–III |
Tourette syndrome | THC, cannabis | Phase II, observational studies |
Parkinson’s disease symptoms | THC, CBD, cannabis | Observational studies |
Post-traumatic stress disorder | Cannabis | Observational studies |
Dementia with agitation | THC, cannabis | Observational studies |
Social anxiety | CBD | Phase II, observational studies |
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Siracusa, L.; Ruberto, G.; Cristino, L. Recent Research on Cannabis sativa L.: Phytochemistry, New Matrices, Cultivation Techniques, and Recent Updates on Its Brain-Related Effects (2018–2023). Molecules 2023, 28, 3387. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083387
Siracusa L, Ruberto G, Cristino L. Recent Research on Cannabis sativa L.: Phytochemistry, New Matrices, Cultivation Techniques, and Recent Updates on Its Brain-Related Effects (2018–2023). Molecules. 2023; 28(8):3387. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083387
Chicago/Turabian StyleSiracusa, Laura, Giuseppe Ruberto, and Luigia Cristino. 2023. "Recent Research on Cannabis sativa L.: Phytochemistry, New Matrices, Cultivation Techniques, and Recent Updates on Its Brain-Related Effects (2018–2023)" Molecules 28, no. 8: 3387. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083387