A Systematic Review on the Research Progress on Polysaccharides from Fungal Traditional Chinese Medicine
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Preparation
2.1. Extraction of Polysaccharides from Fungal TCM
Fungi Name | Polysaccharide Extraction Method | Parameters | Total Yield (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ganoderma lucidum | Continuous phase transition extraction | The air-dried fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum were extracted according to the following conditions: distilled water, 100 °C, 4 h, and flow rate of 28 L/h | 7.13% | [34] |
Red Ganoderma lucidum | Ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction | Enzyme concentration, 3%; pH, 5.5; extraction temperature, 45 °C; extraction time, 30 min; ultrasonic power, 480 W | The highest content of polysaccharides was 32.08 mg/g | [35] |
Cordeceps sinensis | Internal boiling method | Resolver concentration, 90%; parse time, 1 min; extractant volume, 60 mL; extract time, 4 min; 100 °C | 2.37% | [36] |
Ophiocordyceps sinensis | Microwave extraction | Mesh number, 80; 1:26 (g/mL); 3 times; microwave power, 330 W; microwave time, 4 min | 9.06% | [37] |
Cordyceps militaris | Water extraction | Shaking (150 rpm); 1: 10 (w/v); 24 h; twice | 4.95% | [38] |
Cordyceps militaris | Alkali extraction | Extraction solvent, 0.5 M NaOH solution; 8 volumes; 95 °C; 3 h; twice | N/A | [39] |
Poria | Steam blasting pretreatment, water extraction and alcohol precipitation | Steam blasting pressure, 2.0 MPa; dwell time, 60 s; 1:50 (g/mL); 60 °C; 120 min | 1.95% | [40] |
Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf | Dilute alkali leaching | 4 °C; 0.15 M NaOH solution | 72.656% (polysaccharide content) | [42] |
Poria cocos | Combined enzyme extraction method | Cellulase, 2.5%; hemicellulose, 2.5%; beta-glucanase, 5%; 90 min; 50 °C; pH 5.0 | 6.13% | [43] |
Poria cocos | Ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction | Combined enzyme addition amount (cellulase:papain = 4:1), 7.60%; 1:44 (g/mL); pH 4.90 | 10.42% | [44] |
Polyporus umbellatus | Ultrasonic-assisted extraction | Extraction temperature, 72 °C; extraction power, 300 W; extraction time, 65 min; liquid-to-solid ratio, 22 mL/g | 2.47% | [45] |
Polyporus umbellatus | Microwave-assisted extraction | Extraction time, 2.5 min; microwave power, 614 W; pH 6.6; liquid-to-solid ratio, 30:1 | 6.75% | [46] |
Polyporus umbellatus | Hot distilled water extraction | Pretreated with 80% ethanol for 24 h; hot distilled water, 90 °C; twice; 4 h | N/A | [47] |
Polyporus umbellatus | Alkali solution extraction | 2% sodium hydroxide containing 2% of urea | N/A | [48] |
Polyporus umbellatus | Enzymatic coupled with ultrasonic-assisted extraction | Cellulose:pectinase = 1:1; 50 °C; pH = 6.5, 60 min; additional 30 min of ultrasonic treatment | 7.48% | [49] |
Omphalia | Water extraction | Extraction temperature, 100 °C; extraction time, 93 min; the water/solid ratio, 21:1; twice | 23.12% | [50] |
Omphalia | Cellulose enzymolysis | Enzymolysis temperature of 40 °C; cellulose addition, 0.08%; enzymolysis time, 90 min | 3.57% | [51] |
Lasiosphaera fenzlii | Ultrasound-assisted extraction | Liquid-to-solid ratio, 30:1; reflux time, 53.77 min; extraction temperature, 58.33 °C | 4.01% | [54] |
Lasiosphaera puffball | Snailase-assisted extraction | Extraction temperature, 35 °C; extraction time, 120 min; snailase addition, 5.0%; pH 6.0 | 0.908% | [55] |
Lasiosphaera puffball | High-temperature water extraction and alcohol precipitation as well as wall-breaking method | Breaking speed, 600 rpm; extraction time, 2.5 h; extraction temperature, 100 °C; liquid-to-solid ratio, 20:1 | 1.065% | [56] |
2.2. Purification and Isolation of Polysaccharides from Fungal TCM
Fungi Name | Source | Polysaccharide Name | Extraction and Purification Method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ganoderma lucidum | Fruiting body | GLPC2 | Water extraction and ethanol precipitation; fractioned using DEAE SepharoseTM FF column with different concentrations of NaCl solution; subsequently eluted using Sephacryl S-200 HR column with 0.5 M NaCl solution | [60] |
Ganoderma lucidum | Fruiting body | FXM | The fruit body of Ganoderma lucidum was extracted with alkali solution after degreasing, and the alkaline extract was neutralized with acid and dialysis for 72 h. Fehling reagent was added to the solution, and the polysaccharide FXM was obtained after continuous washing with acid and alkali solution and dialysis. | [61] |
Ganoderma lucidum | Fruiting body | RGLP-1 | The crude polysaccharides were injected into the cut-off ultrafiltration membrane to obtain different fractions (EGLP and RGLP) according to their molecular weight. RGLP was further purified through Sephacryl S-500 HR column and eluted with 0.2 mol/L NaCl resolution at the flow rate of 0.8 mL/min | [34] |
Ganoderma lucidum | Spore | GLSP-I | Water extraction and ethanol precipitation; eluted by different concentrations of NaCl solution using middle-pressure liquid chromatography equipped with a DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow column; then purified on Sephadex G100 column | [62] |
Ganoderma lucidum | Mycelia | SeMPN | Water extraction and ethanol precipitation; eluted with different concentrations of NaCl solution on a DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow column; then purified on Sephadex G100 column | [63] |
Ganoderma lucidum | N/A | GLPs | Hot water extraction; graded by ultrafiltration membranes (100 kDa, 10 kDa and 1 kDa); transmembrane pressures of 0.6–1 MPa; flow speed of 700 r/min; deproteinized with Sevag method and precipitated with ethanol; eluted using DEAE Sepharose fast flow chromatography with different concentrations of NaCl solutions | [64] |
Cordyceps militaris | Fruiting body | CM3-SII | Alkali extraction; water-soluble components were fractionated using Q-SepharoseTM Fast Flow column chromatography with NaCl; CM3-S was then purified on a Sephacryl S200HR column with 0.2 mol/L NH4HCO3 | [39] |
Cordyceps cicadae | Fermentation medium | PACI-1 (an extracellular selenium-enriched polysaccharide) | PACI solution was loaded onto DEAE-52 column and eluted with pure water and a step gradient of 0.1 M to 0.3 M NaCl solution. Then, the main fraction was eluted with pure water on a Sephadex G-100 column and filtered through 8000 Da molecular mass membranes to desalt | [65] |
Cordyceps cicadae | Fruiting body | JCH-a1 | Ultrasonically-assisted enzymatic extraction (cellulose:chitinase = 1:1); deproteinized with Sevage; the fractions were eluted with DEAE-32 column and Sephadex G-100 column, respectively | [66] |
Cordyceps cicadae | Bacterium substance | BSP | Hot water bath extraction (78 °C); deproteinized with Sevage; eluted on DEAE-52 column chromatography with different concentrations of NaCl (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 M NaCl) | [67] |
Cordyceps cicadae | Spore powder | SPP | Hot water bath extraction (78 °C); deproteinized with Sevage; eluted on DEAE-52 column chromatography with different concentrations of NaCl (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 M NaCl) | [67] |
Cordyceps cicadae | Fruiting body | PPP | Hot water bath extraction (78 °C); deproteinized with Sevage; eluted on DEAE-52 column chromatography with different concentrations of NaCl (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 M NaCl) | [67] |
Cordyceps militaris | N/A | CMP | Hot water reflux extraction; eluted with 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 mol/L NaCl onto a DEAE-52 cellulose column | [68] |
Cordyceps militaris | Culture broth | EPS-III (A homogenous exopolysaccharide) | The culture broth was centrifuged, collected and concentrated; then it was precipitated with ethanol absolute (1:4); Sevage method and macroporous absorption resin (AB-8) to remove protein and pigment; further purified using Sephadex G-200 with distilled water | [69] |
Cordyceps militaris | Fermentation broth | AEPS-II (An acidic exopolysaccharide) | The fermentation broth was centrifuged, concentrated and mixed with anhydrous ethanol; NKA-9 macroporous adsorption resin was used to remove pigment and protein using Sevage method; the crude EPS was isolated and purified with DEAE-Sephacel and Sephadex G-200 column chromatography, respectively | [45] |
Poria cocos | Powder | PCP-1 | The powder was extracted using deep eutectic solvent (ChoCl and oxalic acid in a molar ratio of 1:2); Sevage method was used for deproteinization; then the water solution was eluted on a Sephadex G-15 column | [71] |
Poria cocos | Mycelial culture | FMGP | It was isolated from 49-day-old cultures of mycelia, after extraction with 0.1 M sodium acetate, centrifugation, precipitation and dialyzation, the supernatant was purified on a column of Fractogel BioSec | [72] |
Wolfiporia cocos | Dried sclerotia | WIP (an acidic polysaccharide that is insoluble in water) | Dried sclerotia was extracted with NaOH solution (0.75 mol/L) and neutralized with HCl (1 mol/L); petroleum ether and hot water was applied to remove fat-soluble and water-soluble molecules; dialysis for removing inorganic salts | [73] |
Poria cocos | Sclerotium | PCP-1C | The dried powder was extracted with ultrapure water and precipitated with ethanol; the Sevage method was used to remove protein; cellulose DEAE-52 column and Sephacryl S-500 column were applied to obtain PCP-1C | [74] |
Poria cocos | Fermentation broth | EPS-0 M, EPS-0.1 M (exopolysaccharide) | Directly concentrated the supernatant of the fermentation broth; the water-soluble solution was dealt with using DEAE-52 cellulose anion exchange column and Sephadex G-100 gel column | [75] |
Poria cocos | Lyophilized mycelium | IPS-0 M, IPS-0.1 M (intracellular polysaccharide) | Extract the lyophilized mycelium in hot water; the water-soluble solution was dealt with using DEAE-52 cellulose anion exchange column and Sephadex G-100 gel column | [75] |
Polyporus umbellatus | Fruiting body | HPP | The Sevage method was used to remove protein; then the water solution was eluted using DEAE-52 cellulose column and Sephadex G-100 gel-filtration column, respectively | [76] |
Polyporus umbellatus | Sclerotia | PUP-W-1 | Boiling water extraction; initial separation was completed using DEAE-Sepharose Fast-Flow column with water and different concentrations of NaCl; further separation was completed via SuperdexTM G-75 column | [77] |
Polyporus grammocephalus | Fruit body | PGPS | The fruit bodies were boiled with 4% NaOH and precipitated with ethanol; the crude water soluble polysaccharide was fractionated with GPC on Sepharose-6B column | [78] |
Omphalia lapidescens | Fruit body | OL-2 | The fruit body was extracted with hot water; the insoluble material was extracted with 0.1 M NaOH and 0.5 M NaOH, respectively; the 0.5 M NaOH soluble material was washed with water and 0.1 M NaOH, dissolved with 0.5 M NaOH and acidified with AcOH | [79] |
Lasiosphaera fenzlii | Fruit body | TFP-1, TFP-2, TFP-3, TFP-4 | The fruit body was extracted with 0.2 M NaOH solution; trichloroacetic acid was used to remove free protein; DEAE cellulose column, SephacrylTM S-200 and SephacrylTM S-300 gel columns were used for further isolation and purification | [80] |
Calvatia geigantea | N/A | CGP I-1 | Water extraction; DEAE-Sepharose fast flow ion-exchange column chromatography and Sephacryl S-300 gel filtration were used for isolation and purification | [81] |
3. Structural Identification of Polysaccharides from Fungal TCM
3.1. Ganoderma
3.2. Cordyceps
3.3. Poria Cocos
3.4. Polyporus
3.5. Omphalia lapidescens
3.6. Lasiosphaera fenzlii
4. Biological Functions
4.1. Anti-Tumor Activity
4.2. Anti-Oxidant Activity
4.3. Immunomodulatory Activity
4.4. Hypolipidemic Activity
4.5. Hypoglycemic Activity
4.6. Hepatoprotective Activity
4.7. Modulation on Gut Microbiota
4.8. Anti-Inflammatory Activity
4.9. Other Activities
Bioactivity | Compound Name | Source | Subjects | Dose | Effects and Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anti-tumor activity | Pachyman | Poria cocos | HepG2 human liver cancer cell and network pharmacology | 0, 25 and 50 μM | Pachyman exerted an anti-cancer activity by elevating the intracellular level of ALB protein and downregulating the cellular content of VEGFA protein | [85] |
HPP | Polyporus | BBN-induced Fischer-334 rats and RAW 264.7, TPH-1 and T24 cells | 1, 10 and 100 μg/mL | HPP could inhibit bladder cancer in BBN-induced rats by ameliorating histological damages in bladder; improve the tumor inflammatory microenvironment by regulating TAM polarization and NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway | [76] | |
HPP | Polyporus | Phorbol myristate acetate-induced THP-1 human leukemic cell | 1, 10 and 100 μg/mL | HPP could confront bladder cancer through inhibiting the proliferation and progression of bladder cancer by the polarization of macrophages to M1 type, downregulating the JAK2/NF-κB signaling pathway | [86] | |
CSP | Cordyceps sinensis | HCT116 cell line | 0–800 μg/mL | CSP could inhibit the proliferation of HCT116 cells by inducing apoptosis and autophagy flux blockage. It might be achieved by modulating PI3K-Akt-mTOR and AMPK-mTOR-ULK1 signaling pathways | [87] | |
CCP | Cordyceps cicadae | Hela cells | 0, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 and 1600 μg/mL | CCP could inhibit the expression of Cyclin E, Cyclin A and CDK2, promote the expression of P53, activate Caspase cascade reaction, and up-regulate death receptor and the ratio of pro-apoptotic factor/anti-apoptotic factors to cause the cell cycle arrest and induce the apoptosis | [88] | |
WCP | Wild Cordyceps | H22 tumor-bearing BALB/c mice | 100 and 300 mg/kg | The large molecular weight polysaccharide could inhibit the proliferation of H22 tumors by improving immune function and promoting the apoptosis of tumor cells, and mainly interfering with IL-10/STAT3/Bcl2 and Cytoc/Caspase8/3 signaling pathways | [89] | |
WSG | Ganoderma lucidum | LLC1 cells induced lung cancer C57BL/6 mice | 75 mg/kg | WSG significantly prevented tumor growth and the formation of metastatic nodules in the lung tissue, and promoted the apoptotic responses mediated by cisplatin | [90] | |
WSG | Ganoderma lucidum | Human tongue cancer SAS and HSC3 cells | 0–800 μg/mL | WSG increased subG1 and G2/M populations and elevated Bax/Bcl2 ratio to induce apoptosis; inhibited phosphorylation of EGFR and AKT | [91] | |
GLPS | Ganoderma lucidum | Mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages and hepatocellular carcinoma cell line Hepa1–6 | 0–200 μg/mL | GLPS markedly prevented the growth of Hepa1–6 allograft; promoted the expression of M1 phenotype marker CD86, iNOS, and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-12a, IL-23a, IL-27 and TNF-α); blocked macrophage polarization towards the M2 phenotype; reduced the expression of CD206, Arg-1, IL-6 and IL-10; upregulated the phosphorylation of MEK and ERK, IκBα and P65 | [92] | |
Anti-oxidant activity | PCPP | Poria cocos peels | In vitro | 1–5 mg/mL | PCPP has great anti-oxidant activity by scavenging DPPH radicals and reducing ABST radicals in a dose-dependent fashion | [93] |
PPS | Polyporus umbellatus | In vitro | 1–8 mg/mL | PPS has the significant scavenging ability of DPPH free radicals and hydroxyl free radicals | [94] | |
PPS | Polyporus umbellatus | In vitro | 0.5–8 mg/mL | PPS exhibits the significant scavenging ability on DPPH and other free radicals in a dose-dependent manner | [58] | |
Immunomodulatory activity | CMP | Poria cocos | RAW 264.7 | 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200 and 400 μg/mL | CMP plays a crucial role in immunoregulation by improving the secretions of iNOS, TNF-α and IL-6 through increasing the expression of iNOS, TNF-α and IL-6 mRNA | [95] |
AESP-II | Cordyceps militaris | Cyclophosphamide-induced BALB/c mice | 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg | AESP-II could promote the proliferation of spleen T and B lymphocytes, increase the levels of cytokines and immunoglobulin secreted by T and B lymphocytes, and activate the MAPK signaling pathway to involve in the immunomodulatory function | [70] | |
CSP | Cultured Cordyceps sinensis | Cyclophosphamide-induced female BALB/c mice | 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg | CSP inhibited immunosuppression in mice via stimulating cytokines secretion (IL-12, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-13, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, TGF-β3, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-21) and transcription factors production (T-bet, GATA-3, RORγt, Foxp3), upregulating TLRs and NF-κB pathway key proteins | [96] | |
CCSP-2 | Cordyceps cicadae | Cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressive C57BL/6 mice | 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg | CCSP-2 significantly increased spleen and thymus indices, enhanced macrophage phagocytic activity, stimulated splenocyte proliferation, improved natural killer cytotoxicity and bone marrow suppression, regulated the secretion of cytokines and immunoglobulins and modulated antioxidant enzyme system | [97] | |
Hypolipidemic activity | PCP | Poria cocos | High-fat diet-induced mice | 1.5 g/day | PCP significantly reduced serum and hepatic lipid levels, and altered metabolic pathways including fatty acid metabolism, bile acid metabolism and tricarboxylic acid cycle | [98] |
CM3-SII | Cordyceps militaris | Heterozygous low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR)-deficient hamster | 25, 100 mg/kg | CM3-SII attenuated total plasma cholesterol, non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride; enhanced the concentration of plasma apolipoprotein A1 and the expression of liver X receptor α/ATP-binding cassette transporter G8 mRNA pathway and suppressed the expression of Niemann-Pick C1-like 1; downregulated sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c and upregulated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α; increased the abundance of Actinobacteria and Faecalibaculum and the ratio of Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes. | [99] | |
CM1 | Cordyceps militaris | 3T3-L1 cell; LDLR(+/−) hamsters | 100 μg/mL; 100 mg/kg | CM1 alleviated hyperlipidemia by downregulating the plasma level of apolipoprotein B48, modulating the expression of key genes and proteins in liver, small intestine and epididymal fat, and inhibiting preadipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells by suppressing the key genes involved in lipid droplet formation | [100] | |
SeCMP | Cordyceps militaris | High-fat diet-fed C57BL/6 mice | 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg | SeCMP-200 showed significantly hypolipidemic activity by decreasing serum triglyceride and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, ameliorating obese-induced inflammation, decreasing the abundance of Dorea, Lactobacillus, Clostridium, Ruminococcus and increasing mucosal beneficial bacteria Akkermansia | [101] | |
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | High-fat diet-induced Kunming mice | 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg | GLP inhibited the body weight gain and excessive lipid levels, ameliorated tissue injury; activated Nrf2-Keap1 and suppressed NF-κB signaling pathway; facilitated cholesterol reverse transport by LXRα-ABCA1/ABCG1 pathway; promoted the expression of CYP7A1 and CYP27A1; inhibited intestinal FXR-FGF15 expressions | [102] | |
Hypoglycemic activity | EPS-III | Cordyceps militaris | STZ-induced diabetic KM mice | 60, 120 and 225 mg/kg | EPS-III exerted significantly hypoglycemic effect through alleviating weight loss, reducing plasma glucose concentration, improving glucose tolerance, protecting immune organs and repairing dyslipidemia | [69] |
AEPSa | Cordyceps militaris | High-fat diet and STZ-induced C57BL/6 mice | 400 mg/kg | AEPSa ameliorating diabetes through increasing Allobaculum, Alistipes, Lachnospiracae_NK4A136_group and norank_f_Muribaculaceae and decreasing Enterococcus and Ruminococcus_torques_group, inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB pathway | [103] | |
SPP | Cordyceps cicadae | HepG2 cells and T2DM KM mice | 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg | SPP significantly increased glucose absorption and alleviated insulin resistance in HepG2 cells; SPP exerted hypoglycemic effect through activating PI3K/Akt signaling pathway to reduce hepatic insulin resistance | [67] | |
CMP | Cordyceps militaris | High-fat/high-sucrose diet-induced C57BL/6 mice | N/A | CMP played a crucial role in the hypoglycemic effect by promoting the population of next generation probiotic Akkermansia muciniphila in the gut | [104] | |
F31 | Ganoderma lucidum | High fat diet and STZ-induced type 2 diabetic Kunming mice | 60 and 180 mg/kg | F31 markedly decreased Firmicutes and enhanced the abundance of Bacteroidetes. Specifically, F31 may ameliorate glucose, insulin resistance and inflammation by inhibiting the release of endotoxins into the circulation from intestine, carbohydrate fermentation in gut and activation of intestine–brain axis | [105] | |
F31 | Ganoderma lucidum | C57BL/c and db/db mice | N/A | F31 ameliorated hyperglycemia through different approaches: decreased adenosine, galactitol and glycerophosphocholine and increased arginine, proline, arachidonic acid, creatine, aspartic acid, leucine, phenylalanine and ornithine to protect kidney function; increased Caspase-3, Caspase-6 and Bax and inhibited Bcl-2 to promote apoptosis in epididymal fat; reduced mitochondrial membrane potential to induce adipocyte apoptosis | [106] | |
Hepatoprotective activity | PCP-1C | Poria cocos | Alcohol-induced C57BL/6N mcie | 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg | PCP-1C exerted a hepatoprotective action by decreasing inflammatory factor release, inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis, and ameliorating intestinal barrier injury | [107] |
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | C57BL/6 mice and rat HSC-T6 hepatic stellate cell line | 150 and 300 mg/kg; 0, 1.25, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 mg/mL | GLP dramatically ameliorated hepatic fibrogenesis and inflammation by TLR4/NF-κB/MyD88 signaling pathway; blocked HSCs activation by reducing collagen I and a-SMA expressions; suppressed cell cycle; induced S phase arrest; inhibited the ECM-receptor interaction-associated molecule expressions (ITGA6 and ITGA8); restrained TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway in mice; decreased TGF-β1, Smad2 and Smad3 phosphorylation and promoted Smad7 expression in HSC-T6 cells | [108] | |
Modulation on gut microbiota | WIP | Wolfporia cocos | Alcohol-induced C57BL/6 mice | 1 g/kg | WIP significantly enhanced the ratio of Firmicutes to Proteobacteria, increased the abundance of Lachnospiraceae and inhibited the ethanol-induced fungal overgrowth. It activated the PPAR-γ signaling pathway and facilitated a hypoxic state that suppressed the overgrowth of fungi and Proteobacteria in the gut | [109] |
PCP | Poria cocos | High-fat diet-induced nutritionally obese SD rats | 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg | PCP could regulate intestinal flora structure by increasing the relative abundance of Prevotella, Bacteroides and Sutteralla, and decreasing the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes and the relative abundance of Morganella | [110] | |
CSP | Cultured Cordyceps sinensis | Cyclophosphamide-induced female BALB/c mice | 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg | CSP regulated gut microbiota through recovering SCFAs levels, improving microbial community diversity, modulating the overall structure of gut microbiota, increasing the abundance of probiotics (Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides) and decreasing pathogenic bacteria (Clostridium and Flexispira) | [96] | |
CMP | Cordyceps militaris | High-fat diet-induced C57BL/6 mice | 200 and 400 mg/kg | CMP significantly improved the high-fat diet-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis, increased the abundance of Alloprevotella, Parabacteroides, Butyricimonas and Alistipes, and decreased the abundance of Negativebacillus | [111] | |
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | C57BL/c mice | N/A | GLP elevated the abundances of probiotic bacteria including Lachnospiraceae NK4A136, Ruminococcaceae UGG-014, Lactobacillus and Parabacteroides. | [112] | |
BSGLP | Sporoderm-broken spores of Ganoderma lucidum | C57BL/6J mice | 100 and 300 mg/kg | BSGLP improved gut microbiota dysbiosis; maintained intestinal barrier function; promoted short-chain fatty acid production and GPR43 expression; inhibited serum lipopolysaccharide level; augmented ileum expression of tight junction proteins and antimicrobial peptides; inhibited TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway in adipose tissue | [113] | |
Anti-inflammatory activity | PCP | Poria cocos | Arteriosclerosis in ApoE−/− mice | 100, 200, 400 mg/kg | The serum inflammatory mediators and lipids were inhibited; the pathological changes of the aorta were improved and the activation of TLR4/NF-κB pathway of the aorta was inhibited | [115] |
PPs | Poria cocos | Chronic nonbacterial prostatitis in SD rats | 100, 250, 500 mg/kg | PPs plays the role of anti-chronic nonbacterial prostatitis via alleviating inflammation and oxidative stress, regulating hormone production, modifying gut microbiota and remodeling the DNA methylome | [117] | |
PPs | Poria cocos | Chronic nonbacterial prostatitis in SD rats | 250 mg/kg | PPs alleviates the chronic nonbacterial prostatitis by improving the histological damages in the inflamed prostate, inhibiting inflammation and regulating the gut microbiota by targeting Ruminococcaceae NK4A214 group | [118] | |
PPs fermentation broth | Poria cocos | Chronic nonbacterial prostatitis in SD rats | 250 mg/kg | It is proved that the metabolites of PPs 7-ketodeoxycholic acid and haloperidol glucuronide may be the signal molecules of the “gut-prostate axis” | [119] | |
CMP | Poria | Ulcerative colitis in ICR female mice | 300 mg/kg | CMP alleviated ulcerative colitis in mice through inhibiting colonic shortening and inflammation in colonic tissues, and regulating gut microbiota | [120] | |
PCP | Poria cocos | Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in C57BL/6 mice | 150 and 300 mg/kg | The mechanism of PCP in preventing the development of NASH may be associated with the modulation of intestinal microbiota and the downregulation of the NF-κB/CCL3/CCR1 axis | [121] | |
PCP | Poria cocos | Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in C57BL/6 J mice and zebrafish | 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg | PCP could slow down weight gain, hyperlipidemia and liver steatosis induced by high-fat diet; reduce the destruction of the gut-vascular barrier and the translocation of endotoxins; inhibit intestinal pyroptosis by regulating PARP-1 | [122] | |
CM1 | Cordyceps militaris | Low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout (LDLR−/−) mice | 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg | CM1 could reduce plasma lipid level and formation of atherosclerotic plaques through multiple pathways, enhanced plasma level of apolipoprotein A-I, decreased the levels of triglyceride, apolipoprotein B and total cholesterol, inhibited sterol regulatory element binding protein 1c, increased the liver X receptor α/ATP-binding cassette G5 pathway, inhibited PPAR-γ and adipose triglyceride lipase in epididymal fat | [116] | |
GLPs | Ganoderma lucidum | High-fat diet-induced Japanese big-ear white rabbits | 300 mg/kg | GLPs could prevent the progression of atherosclerosis through improving endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory polarization of macrophages, accelerating the apoptosis of foam cells | [123] | |
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | AOM/DSS-induced C57BL/6 mice | 200 and 300 mg/kg | GLP ameliorated microbiota dysbiosis; promoted short-chain fatty acid production; inhibited TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway; increased numbers of goblet cells, MUC2 secretion, tight junction protein expressions; inhibited macrophage infiltration and IL-1β, iNOS, COX-2 expressions; inhibited the activation of MAPK | [23] | |
Other activities | PCPP | Poria cocos peels | AML-12 liver cell/60Co-γ induced KM mice | 50–400 μg/mL/5, 10 and 20 mg/kg | PCPP exerts a significantly radiation protection effect through ameliorating the damage of spleen and liver, improving the damage of hematopoietic system by regulating erythrocytes, platelets and hemoglobin and decreasing the degree of oxidative damage | [93] |
PPS | Polyporus | Bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis C57BL/6 mice and human lung fibroblasts cell line | 100 mg/kg; 1 mg/mL | PPS significantly improved bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis in mice through ameliorating pathological damages of lung tissues; it exerted antifibrotic effects in vitro via inhibiting fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition, suppressing ECM deposition, repressing lung fibroblast proliferation and migration, suppressing TGF-1β-induced Smad2/3 activating | [125] | |
RLSP | Lasiophaere fenzlii | In vitro | 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001 mg/mL | RLSP possessed an inhibitory effect on both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coil | [126] | |
CPA-1 and CPB-2 | Cordyceps cicadae | High fructose/high fat diet induced obesity and metabolic disorders rats | 100 and 300 mg/kg | These two polysaccharides regulated metabolic disorders through inhibiting insulin and glucose tolerance, serum insulin and glucose levels, reducing serum and hepatic lipid profiles, liver function enzymes and pro-inflammatory cytokines, suppressing hepatic oxidative stress and hepatic lipid accumulation | [127] | |
CMP | Cordyceps militaris | Ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma BALB/c mice | 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg | CMP showed significantly anti-allergic asthma effects through improving inflammatory cytokine levels, ameliorating the histopathological damages, regulating oxidative and inflammatory pathways, reversing gut dysbiosis and improving microbiota function | [128] | |
CMP | Cordyceps militaris | High-fat diet-induced C57BL/6 mice | 400 mg/kg | CMP showed a promising ability to protect mice from obesity through ameliorating systematic inflammation, restoring the phylogenetic diversity of gut microbiota, increasing the relative abundance of short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria, down-regulating the level of bacteria, which were positively related to the development of obesity | [129] | |
CMPB | Cordyceps militaris | ICR mice | 400 and 800 mg/kg | CMPB significantly decreased fatigue metabolites and oxidative stress, increased the expression level of BDNF, PI3K, Nrf2 and HO-1 in the hippocampus | [130] | |
GLP-1 | Ganoderma lucidum | Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion mice | N/A | GLP-1 improved cognitive impairment mice by elevating the levels of Foxp3+ Treg cell and inhibiting energy metabolism disorder | [26] | |
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | C57BL/6 mice and CD1 mice | 1, 5 and 12.5 mg/kg | GLP inhibited the expression of IL-1β and TNF-α; promoted the expression of IL-10 and BDNF; prevented the activation of microglia and proliferation of astrocytes in hippocampus; increased the expression of GluA1 S845 phosphorylation as well as GluA1 and GluA2 expression levels | [131] | |
GLPs | Ganoderma lucidum | Ethanol-induced acute gastric injury SD rat | 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg | GLPs diminished the gastric injury in a dose-dependent manner through regulating anti-oxidation, inhibiting inflammation and decreasing the expression of histamine in serum | [132] | |
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | LPS-induced sepsis C57BL/6J mice | 25 mg/kg | GLP could elevate the expression of SIRT1, decreased inflammatory factors in serum and inflammatory cells in heart tissues, blocked apoptosis and facilitated proliferation of myocardial tissues | [133] | |
Liz-H | Ganoderma lucidum | Cisplatin plus docetaxel induced cachexia C57BL/6J mice | 250 mg/mouse | Liz-H could block weight loss, muscle atrophy and neutropenia; downregulate muscle protein degradation-related genes (MuRF-1 and Atrogin-1); increase myogenic factors (MyoD and myogenin); restore the abundance of Ruminococcaceae and Bacteroides to normal levels | [134] | |
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | D-galactose-induced C57BL/6J mice | N/A | GLP increased the expression levels of AQP5, AQP4, AQP1; blocked the release of inflammatory factors; upregulated core clock genes and proteins; restored the co-localized expression of CLOCK and AQP5 | [135] | |
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | LPS-induced C57BL/6N mice | 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg | GLP inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration; reduced the expression levels of GM-CSF, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and Saa3; blocked the activation of NRP1; promoted the expression of Bcl2/Bax and LC3; decreased the ratio C-Caspase 3/Caspase 3 and P62 expression | [124] | |
GLP5 | Ganoderma lucidum | Human acute T cell leukemia cell line | 25 and 50 mg/L | GLP5 notably suppressed the proliferation of Jurkat cells; increased the expression levels of Caspase3; regulated the expression levels of Bax and Bcl-2 | [136] | |
CSP | Cordyceps sinensis | Dextran sodium sulfate-induced C57BL/6J mice | N/A | CSP significantly increased the colon length; improved colon tissue damage; inhibited the activation of NF-κB pathway; decreased the expressions of inflammatory cytokines; augmented the number of goblet cells; regulated the expressions of intestinal tight junction proteins (Occludin and Claudin-1); promoted the formation of IgA-secretory cells and sIgA contents | [137] | |
CMPS-80 | Cordyceps militaris | Apolipoprotein E-deficient mice | N/A | CMPS-80 dramatically blocked formation of atherosclerotic lesions and plasma lipid profiles; regulated multiple lncRNA-microRNA-mRNA axes | [138] |
5. Quality Control
6. Discussion and Perspectives
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Compound Name | Source | Molecular Weight | Monosaccharide Composition | Proposed Structure | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
GLP | Ganoderma lucidum | 112 kDa | Xylose:mannose:galactose: glucose:glucuronic acid = 1.53:15.64:1.84:80.6:0.39 | β-1,6-Glcp and β-1,3-Glcp linkages were the main ones that existed; the apparent structure was porous and loose | [82] |
GLPC2 | Ganoderma lucidum fruiting body | 20.6 kDa | Mannose:glucuronic acid:glucose:galactose:xylose:fucose = 5.9:9.0:80.4:1.8:1.8:0.9 | GLPC2 was mainly composed of D-Glcp-(1→, →3)-D-Glcp-(1→, →4)-D-Glcp-(1→, →6)-D-Glcp-(1→, →3,6)-D-Glcp-(1→, and→4)-D-GlcpA-(1→ | [60] |
FGLP | Fermented Ganoderma lucidum | 88.9 kDa | Arabinose:xylose:mannose:galactose:glucose:glucuronic acid = 0.42:0.82:34.31:3.32:59.47:1.66 | β-1,6-Glcp and β-1,3-Glcp linkages were the main ones that existed; the glucose content was decreased, and the uronic acid content was increased; the apparent structure was smooth and hard | [82] |
GLSP | Ganoderma lucidum | 4–5485 kDa | Arabinose:glucose:galactose = 1.23:90.82:7.95 | The types of glycosidic linkages that existed in GLSP were as follows: β-Glcp-(1→; →3)-β-D-Glcp-(1→; β-Glcp-(1→or→6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→; →5)-α-Araf-(1→; →6)-α-Galp-(1→; →4)-α-Galp-(1→; →6)-α-Galp-(1→4)-α-Galp-(1→ | [83] |
FXM | Ganoderma lucidum | 35.9 kDa | Fucose:xylose:mannose:glucose = 24:25:48.3:2.7 | The main chain of FXM was α-D-Manp-(1→4)-linked units, and some of them were branched at O-6 position with α-L-Fucp-(1→2)-β-D-Xylp groups | [61] |
RGLP-1 | Ganoderma lucidum | 3978 kDa | Fucose:mannose:glucose:galactose = 0.13:0.05:0.72:0.10 | RGLP-1 contained 12 linkage forms: (1→3)-linked glucose; (1→)-linked glucose; (1→3,6)-linked glucose; (1→4)-linked glucose; (1→6)-linked glucose; (1→3)-linked galactose; (1→2,3)-linked galactose; (1→)-linked galactose; (1→6)-linked galactose; (1→4,6)-linked galactose; (1→3)-linked mannose; and (1→2)-linked mannose | [34] |
GLSP-I | Ganoderma lucidum spore | 128 kDa | Glucose | The backbone was (1→3)-β-D-glucan, and three side chains including Glc-(1→3)-Glc-(1→3)-Glc-(1→6)-Glc, Glc-(1→6)-Glc-(1→6)-Glc-(1→6)-Glc and Glc-(1→3)-Glc-(1→3)-Glc-(1→3)-Glc-(1→3)-Glc were linked at O-6 | [62] |
SeMPN | Ganoderma lucidum mycelia | 9.7 kDa | Glucose | The backbone was 1,4-linked Glcp, and the other types of linkage contained T-linked Glcp and 1,4,6-linked Glcp | [63] |
GLSB50A-III-1 | Ganoderma lucidum spore | 193 kDa | Glucose | The backbone of GLSB50A-III-1 was (1→3), (1→4), (1→6)-linked β-D-glucose, and the side chains consisted of β-(1→3) and β-(1→4)-linked residues, which were attached at O-6 | [84] |
CM3-SII | Cordyceps militaris fruiting body | 25.2 kDa | Mannose:glucose:galactose = 10.6:1.0:3.7 | →4)-β-D-Manp(1→, →6)-β-D-Manp(1→, and→6)-α-D-Manp(1→glycosyls, and branching at the O-4 positions of →6)-β-D-Manp(1→ glycosyls with β-D-Galp, (1→2) linked-β-D-Galf, and →2,6)-α-D-Manp(1→ residues, O-6 and O-2 positions of the →2,6)-α-D-Manp(1→ residues were substituted with methyl and β-D-Galp | [39] |
PACI-1 | Cordyceps cicadae fermentation medium | 10 kDa | A homopolysaccharide composed of fructose | NMR spectrum indicated that PACI-1 mainly contained β-configured pyranoside bonds | [65] |
JCH-a1 | Cordyceps cicadae fruiting body | 60.7 kDa | Galactose:glucose:mannose = 0.89:1.0:0.39 | It has a triple helix with more α-glycosides and has strong thermal stability | [66] |
BSP | Cordyceps cicadae bacterium substance | N/A | Arabinose:galactose:glucose:xylose = 7.60:1.80:76.10:14.50 | Araf-(1→, Xylp-(1→, →5)-Araf-(1→, Manp-(1→, Galp-(1→, →3, 5)-Araf-(1→, →2)-Manp-(1→, →6)-Manp-(1→, →4, 6)-Glcp-(1→, →4, 6)-Galp-(1→, →2, 6)-Manp-(1→ | [67] |
SPP | Cordyceps cicadae spore powder | N/A | Arabinose:galactose:glucose:xylose:mannose = 9.10:15.40:41.20:17.50:16.80 | Araf-(1→, →5)-Araf-(1→, Glcp-(1→, →3, 5)-Araf-(1→, →3)-Glcp-(1→, →4)-Glcp-(1→, →3, 4)-Glcp-(1→, →4, 6)-Glcp-(1→ | [67] |
PPP | Cordyceps cicadae fruiting body | N/A | Arabinose:galactose:glucose:xylose:mannose = 4.50:11.90:62.20:10.70:10.70 | Araf-(1→, Xylp-(1→, →5)-Araf-(1→, Manp-(1→, Galp-(1→, →3, 5)-Araf-(1→, →2)-Manp-(1→, →3)-Glcp-(1→, →4)-Galp-(1→, →4)-Glcp-(1→, →6)-Glcp-(1→, →6)-Manp-(1→, →3, 4)-Glcp-(1→, →4, 6)-Glcp-(1→, →2, 6)-Manp-(1→ | [67] |
CMP-1 | Cordyceps militaris | 2.2 × 103 kDa | Mannose:Glucosamine:Ribose:Rhamose:Glucuronic acid:Galacturonic acid:Glucose:Galactose:Xylose:Arabinose:Fucose = 39.35:4.03:3.98:2.56:1.62:1.52:70.52:26.90:1.00:3.23:4.23 | It has three weak absorption peaks (1109 cm−1, 1125 cm−1 and 1151 cm−1) in the range of 1110~1160 cm−1, which may be contributed to side chains on α-carb\zon from the second derivative of infrared spectrum. And it has three broad absorption bands in the range of 990~860 cm−1 | [68] |
CMP-2 | Cordyceps militaris | 2.8 × 103 kDa | Mannose:Glucosamine:Ribose:Rhamose:Glucuronic acid:Galacturonic acid:Glucose:Galactose:Xylose:Fucose = 13.62:86.70:7.80:6.22:1.47:2.99:17.80:9.26:1.00:3.02 | It has two weak absorption peaks (1109 cm−1 and 1151 cm−1) in the range of 1110~1160 cm−1 and four absorption peaks in the range of 990~860 cm−1 | [68] |
CMP-3 | Cordyceps militaris | 1.7 × 103 kDa | Mannose:Glucosamine:Ribose:Rhamose:Glucuronic acid:Galacturonic acid:Glucose:Galactose:Xylose:Fucose = 33.61:44.67:27.34:31.84:7.32:8.39:102.23:38.27:1.00:5.79 | It has two weak absorption peaks (1109 cm−1 and 1125 cm−1) in the range of 1110~1160 cm−1 and six absorption peaks in the range of 990~860 cm−1 | [68] |
EPS-III | Cordyceps militaris culture broth | 1.6 × 103 kDa | Mannose:Glucose:Galactose = 1.68:1:1.83 | The backbone was mainly consisted of →4)-α-D-Galp-(1→, while →3, 6)-α-D-Manp-(1→, →4)-α-D-Manp-(1→, →3)-β-D-Galp-(1→ and →3)-α-D-Glcp-(1→ | [69] |
AEPS-II | Cordyceps militaris fermentation broth | 61.5 kDa | Mannose:Glucuronic acid:rhamnose:galactose acid:N-acetyl-galactosamine:Glucose:galactose:Arabinose = 1.07:5.38:1:3.14:2.23:15:6.09:4.04 | The backbone contained →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, 4, 6-α-D-Glcp-(1→, 2, 4)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, →3)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →3)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, →4)-β-D-Galp-(1→, →4)-α-D-GalpA-(1→, →4)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, →6)-β-D-GalNAc-(1→; the linkages of branches were mainly composed of 4, 6-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →3)-α-D-Araf-(1→, →2, 4)-β-D-GlcpA-(1→ | [70] |
PCP-1 | Poria cocos | 3.2 kDa | Nearly 100% glucose | The main linkages of backbone structure were 1, 3-linked glucose | [71] |
FMGP | Poria cocos cultures mycelia | 31.7 kDa | Glucose:Galactose:Mannose:Fucose = 16:7:3:2 | The main skeleton was a 1,4-α-Man-interlaced-1,3-β-Glucan with interlaced 6-O-α-L-fucosyl 1,4-α-Glc and 1,4-α-Gal branches | [72] |
WIP | Wolfiporia cocos dried sclerotia | 8.1 kDa | Glucose | It was a kind of pyranose form with β anomeric configuration; the main chain was 1,3-β-Glucan with amorphous structure | [73] |
PCP-1C | Poria cocos sclerotium | 17 kDa | Galactose:Glucose:Mannose:Fucose = 43.5:24.4:17.4:14.6 | The backbone consisted of 1,6-α-D-Glcp, whose branches composed of 1,3-β-D-Glcp, 1,4-β-D-Glcp, 1,6-β-D-Glcp, T-β-D-Glcp, T-α-D-Manp, T-α-L-Fucp, 1,3-α-L-Fucp | [74] |
EPS-0M | Poria cocos fermentation broth | 1.8 × 103 kDa | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose:Fucose:Rhamnose = 17.3:46.3:19.9:8.7:5.0 | It possessed β-type glycosidic bonds and exhibited loose fragmentary aggregation with an amorphous spherical structure | [75] |
EPS-0.1M | Poria cocos fermentation broth | 2.0 × 103 kDa | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose:Fucose:Rhamnose = 11.5:46.5:21.9:10.7:5.6 | It possessed β-type glycosidic bonds and exhibited loose fragmentary aggregation with an amorphous spherical structure | [75] |
IPS-0M | Poria cocos mycelium | 30 kDa | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose:Fucose:Rhamnose = 79.7:8.9:5.5:1.7:3.1 | It possessed β-type glycosidic bonds and it was mainly filamentous and rod-like, with a relatively regular structure | [75] |
IPS-0.1M | Poria cocos mycelium | 5.0 × 103 kDa | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose:Fucose:Rhamnose = 50.3:20.9:16.1:6.0:4.0 | It possessed β-type glycosidic bonds and it was mainly filamentous and rod-like, with a relatively regular structure | [75] |
HPP | Polyporus umbellatus | 6.9 kDa | Only glucose | It has a backbone of 1,4-linked α-D-glucan with a (1→6)-α-D-glucopyranosyl side-branching unit | [76] |
PUP-W-1 | Polyporus umbellatus sclerotia | 41.1 kDa | Only glucose | The backbone consisted of a repeating chain of eight →3)-β-D-Glcp-(1→ units, with branched chains of four β-D-Glcp residues, joined by repeating 1,6-linkage units at the O-6 position of the backbone | [77] |
PGPS | Polyporus grammocephalus | 140 kDa | Only glucose | The repeating unit of the glucan was →3)-α-D-Glcp(1→[4) -α-D-Glcp(1]2→ | [78] |
OL-2 | Omphalia lapidescens | N/A | Only glucose | It consisted of a 1,3-β-Glucan backbone chain decorated with a single six-branched β-glucosyl side unit on every fourth residue | [79] |
TFP-1 | Lasiosphaera fenzlii fruit body | 500 kDa | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose = 6.3:1.03:2.07 | Total sugar content of 96.94%; Terminal Glcp:1,3-linked Galp:1,2-linked Manp:1,3-linked Glcp:1,6-linked Glcp:1,2,3,6-linked Glcp = 28.48:10.31:26.69:25.86:8.21:8.25 | [80] |
TFP-2 | Lasiosphaera fenzlii fruit body | 500 kDa | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose = 8.68:0.69:0.63 | Total sugar content of 97.24%; Terminal Glcp:1,3-linked Galp:1,2-linked Manp:1,3-linked Glcp:1,6-linked Glcp:1,2,3,6-linked Glcp = 14.42:6.27:9.71:30.85:34.03:8.75 | [80] |
TFP-3 | Lasiosphaera fenzlii fruit body | 600 kDa | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose = 7.46:1.25:1.29 | Total sugar content of 95.24%; 1,3-linked Galp:1,2-linked Manp:Terminal Glcp:1,3,6-linked Glcp:1,2,3,6-linked Glcp = 0.132:0.12:0.402:0.261:0.075 | [80] |
TFP-4 | Lasiosphaera fenzlii fruit body | 1000 kDa | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose = 5.89:1.22:2.89 | Total sugar content of 56.94%; uronic acid content of 47.95%; protein content of 34.89%; due to the high content of protein and uronic acid, methylation was not successful | [80] |
CGP I-1 | Calvatia geigantea | N/A | Glucose:Mannose:Galactose = 11.28:1.22:3.92 | The CGP I-1 molecules was a linear molecules with branches; the main chain is composed of mannose and glucose, and there were 1→3, 1→2,3, 1→3,6 bond types that were not oxidized by periodate acid; the branch chain or end residues of the main chain were composed of β-Gal(1→4), β-Glc(1→6) and α-Glc(1→4) | [81] |
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Bai, C.; Su, F.; Zhang, W.; Kuang, H. A Systematic Review on the Research Progress on Polysaccharides from Fungal Traditional Chinese Medicine. Molecules 2023, 28, 6816. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28196816
Bai C, Su F, Zhang W, Kuang H. A Systematic Review on the Research Progress on Polysaccharides from Fungal Traditional Chinese Medicine. Molecules. 2023; 28(19):6816. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28196816
Chicago/Turabian StyleBai, Chenxi, Fazhi Su, Wensen Zhang, and Haixue Kuang. 2023. "A Systematic Review on the Research Progress on Polysaccharides from Fungal Traditional Chinese Medicine" Molecules 28, no. 19: 6816. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28196816