Approaching Authenticity Issues in Fish and Seafood Products by Qualitative Spectroscopy and Chemometrics
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. A Conceptual Framework of Spectroscopy and Chemometrics
2.1. UV–Vis Absorption and Fluorescence Emission Spectroscopy
2.2. IR Spectroscopy
2.3. Raman Spectroscopy
2.4. Hyperspectral Imaging
2.5. NMR Spectroscopy
2.6. Qualitative Chemometric Methods
2.6.1. Spectral Pre-Treatments
2.6.2. Unsupervised Methods
2.6.3. Supervised Methods
3. Authenticating Fish and Seafood through the Application of Qualitative Spectroscopy and Chemometrics
3.1. Species Substitution
3.1.1. Application of Vibrational Spectroscopy
3.1.2. Application of NMR Spectroscopy
3.2. Production Method and Farming System Misrepresentation
3.2.1. Application of Vibrational Spectroscopy
3.2.2. Application of NMR Spectroscopy
3.3. Geographical Origin Falsification
3.3.1. Application of Vibrational Spectroscopy
3.3.2. Application of NMR Spectroscopy
3.4. Discrimination between Fresh and Frozen/Thawed Fish and Seafood
3.4.1. Application of Fluorescence and Vibrational Spectroscopy
3.4.2. Application of Hyperspectral Imaging Spectroscopy
3.4.3. Application of NMR Spectroscopy
4. Critical Aspects and Limitations to Overcome
5. Conclusions and Prospects for the Future
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ANN | artificial neural networks; |
BBN | Bayesian belief network; |
FIR | far-infrared; |
FDA | factorial discriminant analysis; |
FFT | fast Fourier transform; |
FT | Fourier transform; |
HCA | hierarchical cluster analysis; |
HSI | hyperspectral imaging; |
IR | infrared; |
k-NN | k-nearest neighbors; |
LDA | linear discriminant analysis; |
LW-NIR | long-wave near infrared; |
MIR | mid-infrared; |
NMR | nuclear magnetic resonance; |
MSC | multiplicative scatter correction; |
NIR | near-infrared; |
OPLS-DA | orthogonal partial least square-discriminant analysis; |
PCA | principal component analysis; |
PLS-DA | partial least square-discriminant analysis; |
PNN | probabilistic neural network; |
QDA | quadratic factorial analysis; |
SERS | surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy; |
SG | Savitzky–Golay smoothing; |
SIMCA | soft independent modelling of class analogy; |
SNV | standard normal variate; |
SVM | support vector machine; |
SW-NIR | short-wave near infrared; |
UV | ultraviolet; |
Vis | visible. |
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Spectroscopic Technique | Wavelength Range (nm) | Interaction Light-matter | Basic Principle | Sensitive Compounds | Information Obtained | Applications | Possible Limitations | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UV–Vis | UV | 2 × 102–4 × 102 | Absorption/emission | Electronic transitions | Double-conjugated bonds; isolated double, triple, peptide bonds; aromatic and carbonyl groups | Molecular structure | Qualitative/quantitative | Need of sample preparation pH and temperature interferences |
Vis | 4 × 102–7.5 × 102 | |||||||
IR1: | NIR | 7.5 × 102–2.5 × 103 | Absorption | Vibrations/rotations of molecular bonds (changes in dipole moments) | Polar bonds (N–H, C–H, O–H, S–H, C–O) | Chemical bonds and physical structure | Qualitative/quantitative | Water interferences Overlapping of spectral peaks |
MIR | 2.5 × 103–2.5 × 104 | |||||||
Raman | 2.5 × 103–1.0 × 106 | Scattering | Vibrations of molecular bonds (changes in polarizability) | Non-polar double or triple bonds (C = C, C ≡ C) | Chemical bonds and physical structure | Qualitative/quantitative | Fluorescence and photodecomposition interferences Low-intensity Peaks | |
HSI | Varying by spectroscopic modules | Absorption/emission/scattering | Varying by vibrational spectroscopic modules | Varying by vibrational spectroscopic modules | Varying by vibrational spectroscopic modules | Qualitative/quantitative/spatial | Varying by vibrational spectroscopic modules | |
NMR | 5.0 × 108–7.5 × 109 | Absorption | Nuclear spin changes | Nuclei having a proper magnetic field (spin quantum number ≠ 0 2 | Regio/stereo chemistry of molecules | Qualitative/quantitative/structural | Cost of the equipment |
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Ghidini, S.; Varrà, M.O.; Zanardi, E. Approaching Authenticity Issues in Fish and Seafood Products by Qualitative Spectroscopy and Chemometrics. Molecules 2019, 24, 1812. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24091812
Ghidini S, Varrà MO, Zanardi E. Approaching Authenticity Issues in Fish and Seafood Products by Qualitative Spectroscopy and Chemometrics. Molecules. 2019; 24(9):1812. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24091812
Chicago/Turabian StyleGhidini, Sergio, Maria Olga Varrà, and Emanuela Zanardi. 2019. "Approaching Authenticity Issues in Fish and Seafood Products by Qualitative Spectroscopy and Chemometrics" Molecules 24, no. 9: 1812. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24091812