Modeling Mobile Game Design Features Through Grounded Theory: Key Factors Influencing User Behavior

Abstract

The mobile gaming industry has undergone remarkable expansion alongside advancements in mobile and information technologies. Facing intensified market competition due to user number saturation and product homogeneity, industry practitioners require actionable insights into design features that drive user engagement and in-game payments. This study employs a qualitative research approach based on grounded theory, focusing on role-playing mobile games as the research subject. Primary data were collected through in-depth interviews and focus groups with gaming industry professionals and users, supplemented by online textual data collection. Utilizing the three-stage coding paradigm of grounded theory and drawing upon emotional design theory, this study constructs a dimensional model of mobile game design features comprising 4 major categories, 16 primary design characteristics, and 41 specific design elements. The findings provide theoretical support for understanding how mobile game design features influence user behaviors while offering practical insights for optimizing mobile game products. This research contributes to both academic discourse and industrial practice by systematically identifying and categorizing critical design elements that affect user engagement in mobile games.

1. Introduction

The rapid advancement of the internet and computing technologies has propelled the gaming industry into unprecedented growth, making it a dominant pillar of the global entertainment economy, surpassing traditional sectors such as publishing and film [1,2]. Mobile games, in particular, have emerged as the industry’s cornerstone due to the widespread adoption of portable devices, outpacing PC and console-based games in both user base and market revenue.

As two major product categories in the gaming industry, mobile games and client games (including PC and console games) exhibit significant differences across multiple dimensions.

In terms of hardware performance, constrained by the technical limitations of smartphones and other mobile devices, mobile games generally lag behind client games in terms of content volume, visual quality, and gameplay complexity. Regarding user characteristics, mobile games benefit from device portability and widespread adoption, resulting in a much larger user base than client games [1,2]. Mobile gamers demonstrate high-frequency but short-duration usage patterns, with an average of 3.4 days per week (compared with 2.6 days for client games) but only 1.6 h per day (versus 2.1 h for client games) [3].

In terms of monetization behavior, mobile gamers show lower willingness to pay, with half of them engaging only with free content. In contrast, console gamers have the highest payment conversion rate at 66%. From a business model perspective, client games primarily rely on paid purchases (accounting for 56% of total revenue), while the mobile gaming market is dominated by the free-to-play model [1,4].

Despite the rapid expansion of the mobile gaming market in recent years, the industry now faces significant challenges. One major issue is intensifying market competition. On the one hand, user growth has plateaued, leading to a slowdown in both industry expansion and revenue growth. On the other hand, the relatively low development costs of mobile games—further reduced by the emergence of mini-program games (or “mini-games”)—have significantly lowered technical barriers. This has triggered a surge in the number of mobile game titles, saturating the market. With stagnant user growth and an influx of competing products, the mobile gaming industry has entered a fiercely competitive phase [4].

In this competitive landscape, optimizing game design features has emerged as a crucial strategy for extending product lifecycles and securing market advantages. By enhancing core product competitiveness, developers can effectively boost user retention, engagement, and monetization potential—key factors that ultimately determine a game’s long-term success.

To gain deeper insights into how mobile game design features influence user behavioral intentions, this study aims to establish a comprehensive dimensional framework of mobile game design features. Given the theoretical gap in existing research, this study employs a grounded theory approach, following systematic qualitative analysis procedures to inductively develop and validate a dimensional model of mobile game design features.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Game Continuance Intention

Research on game user behavior primarily focuses on two core dimensions: continuance intention and payment intention. Continuance intention (or continued use intention) refers to the likelihood that users will engage with a game over an extended period. This metric serves as a key indicator of a game’s market performance and long-term viability. Related studies often explore analogous concepts such as user satisfaction, game loyalty, and user churn, which exhibit strong correlations with continuance intention and are sometimes used interchangeably in analysis.

As digital entertainment products, games are frequently examined through the lens of technology adoption theories. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is widely applied to explain how perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use positively influence players’ continuance intention [5,6,7,8]. For instance, Ting and Min (2025) incorporated game quality factors into the TAM framework in their study of serious games, revealing that learning objectives and entertainment value indirectly affect user retention through these perceptual dimensions [9]. Similarly, Chen et al. (2022) demonstrated in a VR gaming context that age and self-efficacy shape gaming attitudes via TAM variables [10].

Considering that game products are mainly used as hedonistic products, many researchers have added constructs related to pleasant emotional experiences, such as game fun, perceived fun, and perceived entertainment, on the basis of the Technology Acceptance Model [6,7,8]. This approach has yielded significant insights, as demonstrated by Linares et al. (2021) who found that, in massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs), user autonomy and competence influence continuance intention through perceived ease of use, while the sense of belonging operates through perceived enjoyment [11]. Similarly, Chiang et al. (2024) established that the perceived entertainment value of virtual reality games indirectly affects usage intention by shaping players’ attitudes toward the game [12].

The concept of flow has emerged as another crucial framework for understanding sustained game engagement. Defined as a state of complete absorption in an activity where users become fully immersed in gameplay and derive intrinsic satisfaction, flow theory helps to explain why players maintain long-term engagement with games [13]. Empirical studies have consistently demonstrated the importance of flow in gaming contexts. For instance, Chang et al. (2024) revealed that stronger flow states enhance users’ game acceptance and concentration levels, particularly in educational gaming scenarios where they improve learning outcomes [14]. Yu et al. (2022) further contributed to this understanding by showing that optimally balanced game difficulty leads to more intense flow experiences, which, in turn, increases users’ willingness to continue playing [15].

The relationship between flow and user experience has been explored across various gaming platforms and contexts. Bian et al. (2023) found that flow experiences not only enhance a game’s entertainment value and user satisfaction but also strengthen the capacity of virtual reality games to foster relationship intimacy [16]. The antecedents of flow have also been investigated, with Pham et al. (2024) identifying sense of presence as a key factor that facilitates flow during gameplay [17]. In mobile gaming contexts, Hew et al. (2023) demonstrated how game design elements such as immediate feedback, social interaction features, and competitive mechanics positively influence flow states, which subsequently affect both game addiction and players’ subjective well-being [18]. This line of research was extended by Rahman et al. (2023), who established flow experience and user participation as critical mediators between players’ attitudes toward mobile games and their continuance intention [19].

2.2. In-Game Payment Intention

The freemium business model relies fundamentally on users’ in-game payment intention as the primary revenue generation mechanism. To elucidate the determinants of player spending behavior, researchers have investigated this phenomenon through multiple theoretical lenses.

From a psychological perspective, studies have demonstrated that gameplay experience and affective states significantly influence purchasing decisions. Ghazali et al. (2023) examined multiplayer competitive games and established that key gameplay elements—including enjoyment, skill progression, and challenge levels—shape users’ flow experiences, which, in turn, predict in-game purchase intention [20]. Complementing these findings, Chou et al. (2023) empirically validated how players’ psychological states directly affect their propensity to acquire virtual items [21]. Ma and He (2024) advanced this line of inquiry by integrating the coolness factor with the hedonic motivation system acceptance model, creating a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding in-game purchasing behaviors [22]. The social dimension of gaming has also emerged as a critical factor in monetization. Shi et al. (2015) revealed that both formal (game-mediated) and informal (player-driven) social interactions, coupled with users’ historical performance metrics, collectively influence their willingness to make in-game purchases [23].

The perceived value of virtual items by game users is also the focus of relevant research on in-game payment willingness. Mkedder and Ozata (2023) demonstrated that virtual item quality, aesthetic appeal, personalization options, and self-presentation potential collectively influence purchase intentions by enhancing their functional, emotional, and social value [24]. This finding aligns with the work of Hsiao and Chen (2015), who identified four key dimensions of perceived value—emotional worth, social significance, price considerations, and performance quality—as critical determinants of in-game spending [25]. Further supporting this perspective, Wang et al. (2021) established that multiple value dimensions, including increasing consumption value, hedonic benefits, monetary worth, character ability enhancement, and visual prestige, significantly boost users’ willingness to purchase virtual items [26].

Beyond perceived value, scholars have investigated the underlying motivations driving in-game purchases. Turkmen and Aytac (2023) identified four primary motivators: unobstructed gameplay, symbolic consumption, economic rationality, and social interaction needs [27]. Similarly, Jang et al. (2018) applied self-determination theory to reveal how autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs influence virtual item purchases, with gift-giving emerging as a particularly strong behavioral predictor [28]. Hamari et al. (2017) conducted a comprehensive analysis of purchase motivations, categorizing 19 specific drivers into six broader groups: gameplay progression, social factors, competitive advantage, economic considerations, child satisfaction, and content access [29]. More recently, Cai et al. (2022) differentiated motivation patterns by item type, finding that cosmetic purchases are driven by envy, uniqueness, and attractiveness; probability-based items by scarcity and gambling appeal; and functional items by the desire for enhanced flow experiences [30].

2.3. Game Design Features

In the research category related to game design, design features are defined as the basic design units that affect the realization and performance of game functions [31]. However, most of the existing research on game design features does not seek to build a global system of design features, but instead focuses on the in-depth understanding of specific design features. For instance, Anderson (2024) identified subtitle clarity, difficulty settings, and control options as critical for inclusive design [32]; Caroux and Mougine (2022) linked task difficulty and visual complexity to perceived challenge, independent of user expertise [33]; Aster et al. (2024) highlighted points, narratives, and feedback as key elements in serious games [34]; Teng et al. (2024) introduced creativity, achievement, and immersion as novel design dimensions affecting satisfaction [35]; Zagata and Medyńska-Gulij (2023) analyzed mini-map features (e.g., projection, perspective) for navigation efficiency [36]. While these studies offer valuable insights, they lack a systematic framework to address the complexity and diversity of mobile game design.

The existing literature demonstrates varied approaches to systematically categorizing game design features, though comprehensive frameworks remain limited. Paravizo and Crilly (2023) developed a structural model identifying 23 key features across three fundamental categories: game components, mechanics, and technology [37]. Earlier work by Lo and Wen (2010) established a more granular MMORPG framework with nine core design components (e.g., character systems, environmental settings, social systems) comprising 36 specific features [38]. Other scholars have proposed alternative organizational structures. Hwang et al. (2016) created a three-tiered hierarchy featuring 3 systems, 9 components, and 29 concrete features for online games [39], while Hsu et al. (2005) focused on appeal factors through six design components (including novelty/power and rewards) encompassing 39 specific features [40].

Although existing studies offer meaningful perspectives on mobile game design features and their effects, several important research gaps remain apparent. First, while substantial attention has been devoted to examining players’ psychological experiences, considerably less scholarly effort has been directed toward understanding how specific game design elements elicit these psychological responses. This represents a crucial theoretical disconnect in the current literature. Second, research focusing specifically on mobile game design features remains relatively scarce. The mobile gaming medium possesses distinctive characteristics—including compact product size, unique content formats, freemium business models, and diverse user demographics—that likely necessitate fundamentally different design frameworks compared with other gaming platforms. This specialization suggests that findings from traditional video game studies may not be directly transferable to the mobile context.

Furthermore, the rapid pace of innovation in mobile gaming presents a significant challenge. The industry’s dynamic evolution, particularly in recent years, has likely rendered many existing research findings obsolete as new design paradigms and gameplay mechanics continue to emerge. This constant state of flux creates a pressing need for updated empirical investigations that reflect contemporary mobile gaming realities. Perhaps most critically, current classification systems for mobile game design features frequently lack robust theoretical foundations. Many existing taxonomies appear to be developed ad hoc, rather than being grounded in established design principles or psychological theories. This theoretical weakness potentially compromises the validity and generalizability of current classification frameworks, limiting their utility for both researchers and practitioners.

These limitations collectively highlight the need for more systematic, theory-driven research that specifically addresses the unique characteristics and evolving nature of mobile game design while establishing clearer connections between design elements and their psychological impacts on players.

3. Methodology

3.1. Grounded Theory Approach

To address the existing gaps in systematic research on mobile game design features, this study employs a grounded theory methodology to identify key design characteristics and their dimensional constructs that influence users’ continued usage and payment intentions in role-playing mobile games (RPGs). Originally developed by Strauss and Glaser at Columbia University in the 1960s [41], grounded theory represents a seminal qualitative research approach that emphasizes theory development through the systematic analysis of empirical data [42].

Unlike hypothesis-driven research paradigms, grounded theory does not presuppose variables or their relationships. Instead, it adopts an inductive approach, building theoretical frameworks through progressive analysis and conceptualization of empirical data [43,44]. This characteristic makes it particularly suitable for the current study, as it addresses the lack of systematic theoretical foundations in existing mobile game design feature classifications. The methodology’s flexibility allows for the emergence of novel conceptual frameworks that accurately reflect the complex realities of mobile game design and user behavior.

The methodology’s distinctive “grounded” nature ensures that theoretical constructs are intrinsically linked to practical observations, thereby fulfilling the fundamental research principle of integrating theory with practice [45]. Grounded theory achieves this through its unique capacity to balance researcher expertise with objective analytical procedures [45,46,47]. Researchers are required to systematically analyze raw data while incorporating their professional knowledge, thereby achieving an organic synthesis of subjective interpretation and objective analysis [46].

This study adopts the established research paradigm of grounded theory methodology, systematically implementing its approach through eight methodical stages: (1) phenomenon identification, (2) problem formulation, (3) research subject selection, (4) theoretical sampling, (5) comprehensive data collection, (6) three-level coding process (open, axial, and selective coding), (7) literature review and comparative analysis, and (8) theoretical model development. The complete research methodology and its sequential implementation are visually presented in Figure 1, which illustrates the systematic progression from initial observation to final theoretical construction. This methodological approach provides robust support for developing a comprehensive dimensional model of mobile game design features that is both theoretically sound and practically relevant.

3.2. Data Collection

This study focuses specifically on role-playing mobile games (RPGs) as the research sample for constructing a dimensional model of design features that influence user behavioral intentions. This focused approach enhances methodological rigor by controlling for genre-specific variations while minimizing potential confounding factors associated with cross-genre comparisons. Three key factors justify the selection of RPGs as the research focus. First, RPGs represent one of the most dominant genres in the mobile gaming industry, as evidenced by recent market studies [2,48]. Their market prominence ensures the practical relevance and immediate applicability of our findings for industry practitioners. Second, RPGs exhibit unparalleled design complexity compared with other mobile game genres. These games typically incorporate sophisticated character progression systems, diversified gameplay structures, and well-developed monetization frameworks, along with complex narrative elements and rich social interaction features. This comprehensive design architecture makes RPGs an ideal sample for examining the multidimensional nature of mobile game design features. Third, the content-rich and structurally complex nature of RPGs affords superior theoretical generalizability. Insights derived from this genre can be effectively adapted to other game categories with appropriate modifications, making the resulting dimensional model particularly valuable for broader game design research.

This study focuses on China’s mobile gaming market, the world’s largest by both user base and revenue scale [48]. This choice ensures strong ecological validity while making our findings immediately applicable to a major segment of the global industry. China’s mature market ecosystem provides an ideal setting to examine how design features influence user behavior at scale, offering insights that are both rigorous and practical for game developers worldwide.

During the data collection phase, we employed online semi-structured interviews, specifically including in-depth interviews and focus group interviews, as the primary method for gathering raw data. This approach was chosen for the following reasons: (1) open-ended interviews align well with grounded theory’s exploratory nature [45]; (2) the semi-structured format balances focus with flexibility [46]; (3) online implementation enables broader participant access [49]. This method yielded rich qualitative data while maintaining research rigor.

In selecting interview participants, this study adopted the theoretical sampling method from grounded theory, which differs from traditional random sampling by allowing researchers to purposefully select information-rich cases based on evolving research questions and theoretical needs [50]. Specifically, we recruited two key groups: experienced mobile gamers who could identify impactful design features through guided recall and industry professionals (designers, product managers) who shared design strategies for user retention and monetization. This dual perspective ensured comprehensive insights while revealing potential user–designer discrepancies for further study.

Participants were initially recruited through a game company partnership and social media, and then the search was expanded via snowball sampling. All candidates completed a gaming experience screening before scheduled online interviews.

Regarding research ethics, as the study was conducted in China, we strictly adhered to both Chinese regulations and international ethical guidelines. As this research falls into the category of consumer behavior studies—involving no clinical interventions or collection of sensitive personal data—it qualified for an ethics exemption under China’s Ethical Review Measures for Life Sciences and Medical Research Involving Humans and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Nevertheless, robust ethical safeguards were implemented; all participants provided informed consent before interviews, which explicitly outlined the study’s purpose, data confidentiality measures, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw at any time, ensuring full compliance with academic ethical standards.

Consistent with best practices in grounded theory [46,51], we adopted an iterative data collection and analysis process to maximize the theoretical sampling potential. Following the initial interviews, we immediately began analyzing emerging patterns, allowing us to refine subsequent interview protocols and questions progressively. This dynamic approach ensured continuous alignment with our core research questions throughout the study. In total, three focus group interviews involving 15 participants were conducted, complemented by 8 in-depth individual interviews. The detailed demographic characteristics of all participants are presented in

Table 1. Interviewees’ information.

Information	Classification	Amounts	Percentage
Total of participants		23	-
Methods	Focus group	15	65.22%
	Individual interviews	8	34.78%
Type of participants	Game players	15	65.22%
	Game developers/operators	8	34.78%
Ages	Under 20	3	13.04%
	21–25	7	30.43%
	26–30	9	39.13%
	31–35	4	17.39%
Monthly income	<3000 RMB	4	17.39%
	3001–6000 RMB	6	26.09%
	6001–9000 RMB	6	26.09%
	9001–12,000 RMB	4	17.39%
	>12,000 RMB	3	13.04%
Play time per week	<7 h	2	8.70%
	8–14 h	8	34.78%
	15–21 h	7	30.43%
	22–28 h	4	17.39%
	>28 h	2	8.70%

.

3.3. Three-Level Coding Process

Following the grounded theory methodology, we conducted a systematic three-level coding procedure to analyze the raw data involving open coding, axial coding, and selective coding [43,46,51,52]. This rigorous coding approach allowed us to progressively move from raw data to abstract theoretical constructs while maintaining strong empirical grounding.

3.3.1. Open Coding

Open coding requires researchers to maintain an open mind while analyzing collected data line by line. In this stage, researchers first transcribe interview recordings into written materials and then conduct word-by-word analysis to identify and extract meaningful concepts. Due to the voluminous raw data, this study illustrates the concept extraction process with selected examples. As shown in

Table 2. Examples of open coding results for the original materials.

ORIGINAL Excerpts (Selected Fragments as Examples)	Conceptual Labels Extracted
“DOWNLOADED AND TRIED IT, BUT DIDN’T LIKE THE ART STYLE, SO I QUIT”	a1-Art Style
“SOME GAMES FORCE YOU TO PAY, OTHERWISE YOU CAN’T PROGRESS—YOU CAN’T COMPETE WITH OTHERS OR COMPLETE MONSTER-HUNTING MISSIONS”	a2-Social Comparison a3-Game Difficulty
“I PLAY MAINLY BECAUSE ALL MY FRIENDS ARE PLAYING IT—I’D FEEL LEFT OUT OTHERWISE”	a4-Playing with Friends
“THE DAILY TASKS TAKE TOO MUCH TIME AND FEEL LIKE A BURDEN”	a5-Play Duration
“THIS GAME IS REALLY FAIR—YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY TO ENJOY IT. THE ART STYLE IS BEAUTIFUL, AND EVEN IF YOU DON’T WANT TO GRIND, JUST EXPLORING IS REWARDING. THE SOCIAL SYSTEM IS GREAT TOO—I’VE MADE MANY FRIENDS IN MY GUILD.”	a1-Art Style a6-Social Connections
“COMPLETING DAILY MISSIONS GIVES REWARDS THAT ACCUMULATE FOR POWERFUL EQUIPMENT, WHICH KEEPS ME PLAYING”	a7-Reward System
“THE STORYLINE AND CUTSCENES ARE SO WELL-MADE AND IMMERSIVE”	a8-Storyline
“GETTING STRONGER REQUIRES NOT JUST LEVELING UP, BUT ALSO UPGRADING EQUIPMENT, RUNES, BADGES WITH COMPLEX COMBINATIONS—IT’S OVERWHELMING”	a9-Complexity
“THE GAME IS CHALLENGING—SOME LEVELS TAKE MANY ATTEMPTS, BUT THAT MAKES VICTORY REWARDING”	a3-Game Difficulty
“I ENJOY BUYING SKINS—THEY LOOK COOL AND IMPRESS OTHERS”	a10-Cosmetics a2-Social Comparison
“THE CHARACTER CUSTOMIZATION IS INCREDIBLY DETAILED, WITH DIVERSE OUTFITS AND COLOR OPTIONS”	a11-Character Creation a12-Appearance Variety a13-Customization
“I’M BUSY AND TAKE CALLS OFTEN, SO I AVOID GAMES REQUIRING UNINTERRUPTED PLAY”	a5-Play Duration
“I HAD TO UNINSTALL BECAUSE IT TOOK TOO MUCH PHONE STORAGE”	a14-Storage Requirements
“THE GACHA SYSTEM FEELS RIGGED—IT’S EXPENSIVE AND FRUSTRATING”	a15-Item Acquisition
……	……

, during the line-by-line analysis, relevant phrases from the raw data were initially extracted and coded with conceptual labels.

Through this process, a total of 75 conceptual labels were initially generated from all raw materials. These labels were subsequently grouped into preliminary categories based on their relevance or similarity. For example, “a20-game bugs” and “a25-frequent crashes” were merged into one category, “aa6-stability”, as both relate to software performance.

Table 3. Category extraction results.

Code	Initial Category	Conceptual Labels
aa1	Power Consumption	a18-High Power Usage
aa2	Device Heating	a19-Severe Phone Overheating
aa3	Performance Fluency	a22-Game Lag; a23-Slow Loading Speed
aa4	Compatibility	a17-Software Compatibility
aa5	Software Size	a14-Storage Space Required
aa6	Stability	a20-Excessive Game Bugs; a25-Frequent Crashes
aa7	Graphic Fidelity	a27-Detailed Models; a28-Exquisite Scenes; a41-Rich Scene Details
aa8	Color Scheme	a26-Premium Color Palette; a31-Pleasant Toning
aa9	Animation Effects	a29-Fluid Motions; a30-Gorgeous Effects; a37-Strong Combat Feedback; a36-Flamboyant Actions
aa10	Aesthetics	a24-Exquisite Concept Art; a38-Beautiful Scenes; a49-Visually Appealing UI
aa11	Visual Style	a1-Art Style
aa12	Background Music	a21-Pleasing Background Music
aa13	Sound Effects	a32-High Audio-Visual Synchronization; a33-Good Sound Effects
aa14	Voice Acting	a34-Immersive Voice Acting; a35-Multi-language Dubbing
aa15	Map Design	a40-Map Design
aa16	Interface Design	a39-Minimalist Interface; a74-Clear UI Layout
aa17	Character Diversity	a42-Multiple Professions; a43-Diverse Character Choices
aa18	Gameplay Variety	a44-High Repetitiveness; a45-Diverse Gameplay
aa19	Task Nonlinearity	a53-Task Selection Freedom; a59-Flexible Task Sequence
aa20	Scene Interactivity	a51-Multiple Interaction Options; a70-Varied Possible Actions
aa21	Difficulty	a46-Operation Difficulty; a47-Resource Acquisition Difficulty; a3-Game Difficulty
aa22	Game Restrictions	a48-Level Restrictions; a73-Play Session Limits
aa23	Function Accessibility	a69-Difficulty Locating Features
aa24	Function Usability	a71-Difficult to Understand
aa25	Fairness	a68-Matchmaking System; a72-Fairness
aa26	Rules	a9-Rule Complexity
aa27	Reward Mechanism	a7-Reward Acquisition
aa28	Event Design	a50-Regular Tasks; a60-Time-limited Events
aa29	Cooperative Features	a62-Joint Task Completion; a64-Team Battles
aa30	Competitive Features	a2-Social Comparison; a57-PVP Battles; a58-Surpassing Others
aa31	Social Features	a4-Playing with Friends; a6-Making Connections; a52-Guild Formation
aa32	Game IP	a54-IP Appeal; a55-Nostalgia Factor
aa33	Backstory	a8-Game Plot; a56-Background Story
aa34	Character Customization	a11-Character Malleability; a12-Character Appearance Variety; a13-Character Appearance Customization
aa35	Item Utility Value	a61-Purchased Items Enhance Performance
aa36	Item Hedonic Value	a10-Cosmetic Items; a65-Purchasing Visual Effects; a63-Standing Out from Others
aa37	Item Pricing	a67-Item Pricing
aa38	Payment Tier Amounts	a66-Payment Amount Tiers
aa39	Payment Rewards & Incentives	a16-Payment Discounts; a75-Payment Rewards
aa40	Item Acquisition Methods	a15-Item Acquisition Methods
aa41	Play Duration	a5-Play Duration

presents the 41 preliminary categories formed through this consolidation process.

3.3.2. Axial Coding

Axial coding builds upon the results of open coding by enhancing category density, analyzing inter-category relationships, clarifying distinctions between categories, and establishing connections among them. In this study, the 41 initial categories derived from open coding were reorganized and consolidated into 16 main categories. For instance, five initial categories related to game visuals—“aa7-graphic fidelity”, “aa8-color scheme”, “aa9-animation effects”, “aa11-visual style”, and “aa10-visual aesthetics”—were integrated into one main category, “A1-visual presentation”.

Guided by the emotional design theory proposed by Norman (2004) [53], these 16 main categories were further classified according to their characteristics. The visceral design features, affecting users’ immediate perception of mobile games, included visual elements, auditory components, environmental settings, and interface design. Behavioral design features, influencing user experience and in-game actions, encompassed diversity, openness of choice, rule configurations, virtual item design, and payment schemes. Reflective features, impacting users’ emotional responses and cognitive engagement, consisted of user interaction, fairness, narrative background, and character customization.

Additionally, hardware requirements and software quality were categorized as external conditions. While not directly affecting game content, these technical factors determine whether users can properly access the game and experience other design features, and they can be optimized through development.

Table 4. Axial coding results.

Category	Main Category	Initial Categories
AA1-Visceral Design	A1-Visual Presentation	aa7-Graphic Fidelity aa8-Color Scheme aa9-Animation Effects aa11-Visual Style aa10-Visual Aesthetics
	A2-Auditory Presentation	aa12-Background Music aa13-Sound Effects aa14-Voice Acting
	A3-Environment Settings	aa15-Map Design
	A4-Interface Design	aa16-Interface Design
AA2-Behavioral Design	A5-Diversity	aa17-Character Diversity aa18-Gameplay Variety aa28-Activity Variety
	A6-Openness	aa19-Task Nonlinearity aa20-Scene Interactivity
	A7-Rule Configuration	aa26-Game Rules aa22-Game Restrictions aa27-Reward Mechanism aa21-Game Difficulty aa41-Play Duration
	A8-Function Usability	aa23-Function Accessibility aa24-Function Ease of Use
	A9-Virtual Item Design	aa36-Virtual Item Hedonic Value aa35-Virtual Item Utility Value aa37-Virtual Item Pricing aa40-Item Acquisition Methods
	A10-Payment Scheme Design	aa38-Payment Tier Amounts aa39-Payment Rewards and Incentives
AA3-Reflective Design	A11-User Interaction	aa29-Cooperative Features aa30-Competitive Features aa31-Social Features
	A12-Fairness	aa25-Fairness
	A13-Story Background	aa32-Game IP aa33-Backstory
	A14-Character Customization	aa34-Character Customization
AA4-External Conditions	A15-Hardware Requirements	aa1-Power Consumption aa2-Device Heating aa3-Performance Fluency
	A16-Software Quality	aa4-Compatibility aa5-Software Size aa6-Stability

presents the complete classification results of these main categories.

3.3.3. Selective Coding

Selective coding builds upon the results of axial coding by clarifying relationships between categories, identifying core categories, and developing a central storyline to organize other categories around the core, ultimately forming a coherent theory. Through comparative analysis of the categories derived from open coding and axial coding, combined with original interview data, this study identified behavioral-level design features as the core category, as they fundamentally influence users’ engagement and spending behaviors in mobile games.

The analysis reveals that instinctive-level design features serve as the presentation form of behavioral-level features, while reflective-level features evoke deeper emotional responses and cognitive reflections based on users’ behavioral interactions. External conditions, including hardware requirements and software quality, primarily depend on the technical demands for implementing behavioral-level features. Conversely, all design features reciprocally influence the presentation and functionality of behavioral-level characteristics.

As illustrated in Figure 2, this study establishes a framework of mobile game design features affecting user behavior, with behavioral-level features at its core. It should be noted that mobile games constitute complex systems where design features are interdependent rather than isolated. Essentially, behavioral-level features form the foundation of user experience, while instinctive-level and reflective-level features interact with them to create a fully functional game system. External conditions not only affect game presentation but are also influenced by these three primary design dimensions.

4. Results

4.1. Visceral Design

In conventional product design, visceral-level design most commonly manifests in aesthetic appearance and auditory presentation. Through elements such as form, color, and material properties, it shapes users’ immediate perceptions and, consequently, influences their initial product preferences [54]. When applied to mobile game design, instinctive-level features encompass four key dimensions: visual presentation, auditory presentation, environmental settings, and interface design.

• Visual Presentation

Visual presentation encompasses five key dimensions: graphic fidelity, color design, animation effects, visual style, and aesthetic appeal. Similarly to product appearance design, visual elements in mobile games create the most immediate impression on users. Humans instinctively gravitate toward visually appealing designs, and strong visual presentation can quickly capture user attention. Given the vast number of mobile games available, poor visual design that fails to align with user preferences often leads to rapid attrition during initial engagement [55]. For instance, interviewees noted, “Genshin Impact’s beautiful visuals and characters drew me in…”, while others stated, “I can’t get into pixel-art games…”

However, visual preferences vary significantly across individuals due to differences in aesthetic tastes [56]. As a result, assessments of color schemes, art styles, and overall visual appeal remain largely subjective, with no universal standard for evaluation. A notable example is Minecraft, a globally acclaimed sandbox RPG that has won numerous awards and amassed a loyal following across platforms, including mobile. Despite its success, its pixelated graphics deter some players—particularly those who prefer highly polished visuals—demonstrating how subjective visual preferences can shape user acceptance.

• Auditory Presentation

Auditory presentation encompasses three key elements: background music, sound effects, and voice acting. Like visual design, sound contributes significantly to user experience, though its impact on player behavior is generally less decisive. This is because audio features are often optional in mobile gaming—users may disable sound when the quality is unsatisfactory or when playing in noise-sensitive environments, without compromising core gameplay functionality. Nevertheless, well-designed audio can greatly enhance a game’s overall appeal.

Background music plays a vital role in establishing atmosphere and emotional engagement while also reinforcing the game’s narrative and world-building [57,58]. For example, Genshin Impact employs distinct musical themes for different regions, mirroring their architectural and cultural styles. Sound effects, such as environmental cues (e.g., flowing water or animal calls), deepen immersion by helping players interpret virtual surroundings—a particularly valuable feature given mobile devices’ limited screen size. Voice acting has grown increasingly prominent in recent years. Effective voice acting directly conveys characters’ emotions and personalities, enriching storytelling and player engagement. Many games now offer multilingual voice acting (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, English) with localized adaptations to resonate across cultures, reflecting mobile gaming’s globalized trends.

• Environmental Setting

The environmental setting in mobile games primarily involves the creation of maps and game scenes, encompassing the style, theme, scale, and content of playable areas. Early mobile games often featured simplistic environments due to technical limitations, which constrained player experience. However, with advancements in mobile hardware and technology, many contemporary games now boast richly detailed environments that significantly enhance gameplay.

User reviews frequently highlight appreciation for well-crafted environments, with comments such as “I enjoy just sightseeing in the game” demonstrating how effective environmental design can positively influence player experience and perception. Leading RPG titles exemplify this trend; Genshin Impact (one of the most popular mobile games in China) presents Teyvat, a fantasy world featuring diverse city designs inspired by various cultures, including Natlan (Mesoamerican/African), Inazuma (Japanese), and Mondstadt (medieval European). These examples illustrate how modern mobile games leverage environmental design to create immersive, visually compelling worlds that engage players beyond core gameplay mechanics.

• Interface Design

Interface design refers to the interactive elements through which users engage with a mobile game, serving as the primary channel for information exchange between players and the game system. A well-designed interface should be intuitive and efficient, enabling smooth operation while presenting information clearly for user comprehension.

Given the limited screen size of mobile devices, interface design faces unique challenges in information presentation. Overloading the screen may create visual clutter, while excessive information hiding can confuse inexperienced players [59]. As one interviewee noted, “Some game functions are too complex, with only an icon displayed—it takes multiple taps to find what I need”. Thus, effective mobile game interfaces must balance information density with accessibility, ensuring that users can navigate features effortlessly within constrained display areas.

Additionally, maintaining visual consistency in design elements—including fonts, colors, and icons—enhances both usability and aesthetic appeal. These components should be periodically refined based on user feedback and technological advancements to improve the overall gaming experience.

4.2. Behavioral Design

The behavioral design in emotional design theory focuses on functional aspects that facilitate user activities, including operational efficiency, goal achievement, and adaptability to users with varying skill levels. In mobile game design, behavioral-level features constitute the core gameplay mechanics that serve as the foundation for both visceral-level and reflective-level designs while maintaining dynamic interactions between these layers.

These behavioral-level characteristics fundamentally determine the essential “how to play” and “what to play” aspects of mobile games, governing their basic functional architecture. Within the context of free-to-play role-playing mobile games, this study identifies six critical behavioral-level design dimensions: game openness, content diversity, rule configuration, functional usability, virtual item design, and payment scheme design. These interconnected dimensions collectively form the operational framework that shapes player experience and engagement.

• Game Openness

Game openness refers to the degree of freedom that users experience in mobile games, which can be categorized into two key design features: task nonlinearity and scene interactivity. Research findings and industry experience demonstrate that these features significantly influence players’ perception of freedom in mobile games [60,61].

Task nonlinearity represents the extent to which players can selectively choose or abandon game tasks based on personal preferences. While most role-playing mobile games employ linear task progression to maintain narrative coherence, this approach may compromise players’ sense of freedom. Scene interactivity denotes the possibilities for players to interact with in-game characters, objects, and surroundings. Early mobile games offered limited interactions due to technical constraints, but recent advancements now enable diverse actions such as character dialogues, object manipulation, and environmental engagements (e.g., climbing, swimming).

The rising popularity of open-world mobile games exemplifies the appeal of high game openness. These games offer unparalleled freedom, where players determine their own progression through rich activities, significantly enhancing playability and user experience. However, the development of open-world games requires substantial resources and technical expertise, making them challenging for most developers. As an alternative, strategically enhancing task nonlinearity and scene interactivity can effectively improve perceived freedom.

• Diversity

Diversity in mobile games refers to the variety of content and gameplay options available to players, fundamentally addressing what users can experience within the game. This study categorizes game diversity into three dimensions: gameplay variety, character diversity, and activity diversity.

Gameplay variety represents the range of play styles offered to users. As a core design element, it significantly influences player behavior while serving as a key product differentiator that enhances user retention and market performance. Major titles often expand upon their core mechanics with multiple gameplay modes—for instance, Genshin Impact builds upon its character combat system with diverse implementations, including open-world battles, boss fights, and dungeon challenges, supplemented by exploration elements. This variety effectively reduces content repetitiveness and extends product lifespan.

Character diversity denotes the selection of playable avatars with distinct abilities and appearances. Unlike traditional single-protagonist RPGs, many contemporary mobile RPGs feature extensive character rosters, often allowing in-game switching between heroes. This design not only enriches player experience but also forms a primary monetization channel through character gacha systems.

Activity diversity encompasses special time-limited activities that incentivize participation through exclusive rewards. While typically based on core gameplay (e.g., Genshin Impact’s limited-time dungeon challenges), their rotating nature and reward structures warrant separate consideration as a distinct design feature that maintains player engagement through novelty and urgency.

• Rule Configuration

Rules design encompasses the fundamental systems governing gameplay, which we categorize into five aspects: game rules, difficulty settings, reward mechanisms, game restrictions, and play duration. These systems form the operational framework that shapes player behavior and experience.

Game rules define how players interact with game content. Complex rule systems, such as intricate character progression mechanics, may confuse players if not properly communicated. Difficulty settings balance challenge and enjoyment—while appropriate difficulty can induce flow states, excessive challenges may frustrate players [62]. Many games now incorporate adjustable difficulty options. Reward systems serve as key motivators, offering virtual items, currency, or achievements. Psychological research confirms that well-timed rewards and variable reward schedules effectively reinforce player engagement [63]. Game restrictions, including level caps and activity limits, serve dual purposes: maintaining game balance and encouraging monetization. These limitations also help comply with regulations, particularly regarding underage players’ access. Play duration varies by activity type. Shorter gameplay sessions suit casual play, while extended sessions enable deeper immersion. RPGs typically feature both brief exploration activities and longer dungeon battles that require continuous participation. Different genres employ distinct timing strategies—casual games emphasize quick sessions, whereas competitive matches demand sustained engagement with penalties for early quitting. These temporal designs significantly impact player experience and retention.

• Functional Usability

Functional usability refers to players’ subjective perception of how easily they can access and operate game features, encompassing both accessibility and ease of use.

Accessibility relates to how intuitively players can locate feature entry points. In complex RPGs, non-core functions (e.g., customer support) are often buried in submenus, creating friction. For instance, interviewed players reported difficulty finding feedback channels. Ease of use aligns with the Technology Acceptance Model’s “perceived ease of use”, measuring how effortlessly players understand and operate features—which is distinct from game difficulty. These factors directly impact gameplay fluidity and, consequently, user retention. Prior studies leveraging the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) consistently demonstrate that strong function usability positively influences players’ continued engagement across game genres [10,11,12].

• Virtual Item Design

Virtual item design encompasses all in-game item systems, focusing primarily on item value and acquisition methods. Drawing from perceived value theory, we categorize item value into three dimensions: hedonic, utilitarian, and monetary value [25,30,64].

Hedonic value stems from items’ aesthetic enhancements (e.g., skins) that satisfy players’ visual preferences and self-expression needs. Utilitarian value derives from functional benefits (e.g., weapons, buffs) that improve gameplay performance. Notably, many items blend both value types, with player perceptions varying significantly across user segments—highlighting the subjective nature of item valuation. Monetary value (pricing) exhibits particular complexity due to dynamic strategies such as limited-time discounts or probability-based acquisition (e.g., gacha), making true price quantification challenging.

Acquisition methods critically influence user experience and spending decisions. Free-to-play games typically offer free items and paid items. Contemporary models such as gacha (randomized draws for premium items) exploit psychological effects through uncertainty and affordable entry points, though potentially fostering irrational spending [65]. Battle pass systems alternatively provide progressive rewards to incentivize sustained engagement. These evolving acquisition methods reflect broader industry innovation while profoundly shaping player behavior and consumption patterns.

• Payment Scheme Design

Under China’s current regulatory framework, player spending in mobile games follows a two-phase process: currency top-up and virtual item purchase. The top-up phase involves exchanging fiat currency for in-game virtual currency, while the purchase phase entails using this virtual currency to acquire premium content. This sequential design establishes top-up as the prerequisite for all in-game transactions. Game operators employ structured monetization systems comprising the following: payment tier amounts—predetermined top-up options with fixed pricing; incentive mechanisms—reward structures designed to encourage top-up behavior through bonus value.

4.3. Reflective Design

The reflective level in emotional design theory governs users’ deeper cognitive processing and post-experience evaluation, ultimately shaping their holistic perception of a product. This design dimension emerges when users retrospectively contemplate their interaction experiences, recalling meaningful moments that provoke emotional resonance and intellectual engagement. In mobile game design, reflective-level features often leverage and synergize with both instinctive-level (sensory) and behavioral-level (functional) elements to achieve their impact. These features primarily operate by evoking emotional responses and stimulating contemplation through gameplay experiences. Based on grounded theory analysis, this study identifies four core reflective-level design components in mobile games: user interaction, fairness, story background, and character customization.

• User Interaction

Player interaction in mobile games encompasses three primary forms: competitive, cooperative, and social engagement. Research consistently demonstrates that virtual interpersonal relationships strengthen emotional bonds among players while fostering psychological dependence on the gaming environment [66].

Competitive features leverage clearly defined victory conditions to stimulate players’ competitive drive, typically implemented through PvP battles, various versus modes, and leaderboard systems. Cooperative gameplay unites players toward shared objectives, emphasizing teamwork through multiplayer dungeons and group quests. Many games blend these dynamics, requiring both intra-team coordination and inter-team competition to achieve victory. Social systems facilitate deeper interpersonal connections [67], which are commonly realized through guilds and friend networks. Extensive studies across gaming contexts confirm that well-designed interaction features satisfy players’ fundamental needs for socialization, relationship-building, and competition [68], thereby enhancing overall experience, satisfaction, and retention [18,69].

It is important to note these interaction designs exclusively apply to networked multiplayer mobile games, as their social dynamics fundamentally depend on persistent online connectivity.

• Fairness

Fairness refers to players’ subjective evaluation of game equity. Research shows that fairness significantly influences justice-related judgments and subsequent behaviors across contexts [70]. In mobile games, fairness emerges from players’ expectations about game rules and feedback mechanisms. Violations of these expectations can damage trust, impair experience, and drive player attrition.

The free-to-play model inherently creates tension between paying and non-paying players. While premium users seek competitive advantages to justify their spending, excessive pay-to-win mechanics may alienate the majority non-paying user base [3,71]. Conversely, minimal differentiation risks reducing paying players’ motivation. This delicate balance makes fairness a critical design consideration, particularly for competitive multiplayer games [72,73,74].

Common solutions include the following: first, offering cosmetic-only monetization (e.g., skins) that enables visual distinction without affecting gameplay balance; second, offering alternative progression paths allowing non-paying users to earn resources through extended playtime, skill demonstration, etc. These approaches help maintain perceived fairness while preserving revenue streams, demonstrating how thoughtful design can reconcile business objectives with player satisfaction.

• Story Background

The story background of mobile games encompasses both in-game stories and broader background lore. Effective storytelling immerses players in the game world while prompting deeper reflection on themes and meaning, making narrative a core design element. Research indicates games become more compelling when their stories either possess poetic qualities or fulfill players’ unrealized fantasies [38,39,55].

Background elements—including worldbuilding details and character backstories—may not always appear directly in gameplay but remain integral to the narrative ecosystem. Games such as Honkai: Star Rail demonstrate sophisticated worldbuilding, expanding upon established lore (in this case, a cosmic tree whose leaves represent distinct universes) while introducing intricate faction relationships and character arcs. To balance gameplay pacing, developers often distribute supplemental lore through external channels such as official websites and social media.

This study also considers licensed IPs as narrative components. Leveraging established intellectual properties—whether original or cross-promotional—allows games to tap into pre-existing emotional connections and fanbases. Well-developed IPs bring rich backstories and nostalgic value that can attract both core gamers and fans from other media.

• Character Customization

Character customization enables players to personalize their in-game avatars, evolving from the preset characters of early mobile RPGs to today’s sophisticated systems allowing modifications of appearance, weapons, and skills. This evolution reflects growing recognition of customization’s psychological impact, as research demonstrates its significant influence on player motivation and engagement [25]. The power of personalization stems from its ability to facilitate identity projection, allowing players to imbue their avatars with personal meaning and, thereby, deepen their immersion in the game world. Beyond self-expression [61], customization serves as a vehicle for social distinction, where unique cosmetic items become markers of status within player communities. These dual functions—satisfying intrinsic needs for creative expression while enabling extrinsic social recognition—explain why robust customization systems have become essential drivers of both player retention and monetization in contemporary mobile game design. The psychological investment that players make in their customized avatars creates powerful incentives for continued engagement and spending, making character personalization a cornerstone of modern game development strategies.

4.4. External Conditions

A game’s technical ecosystem—comprising hardware requirements and software quality—forms the foundational layer that enables or constrains all other design elements. These external factors critically mediate between design intent and actual user experience by determining operational stability and presentation quality. While often overlooked in design discussions, their impact on usability and engagement proves equally vital as content and gameplay features.

• Hardware Requirements

The hardware demands of mobile games primarily encompass three critical aspects: power consumption, thermal performance, and operational fluency. These technical specifications essentially determine whether a device can properly run a particular game. While these requirements are fundamentally shaped by the game’s design features across various levels, developers must implement optimization strategies to ensure broad device compatibility.

Excessively demanding hardware requirements—whether due to advanced graphics or complex functionalities—may exclude significant portions of the user base from satisfactory gameplay, ultimately impacting the product’s market performance. Many modern games address this challenge by incorporating adjustable settings, allowing players to customize visual effects and graphical fidelity based on their device capabilities and personal preferences. This adaptive approach effectively bridges the gap between design ambition and technical feasibility.

• Software Quality

Software quality constitutes a critical aspect of mobile game performance, encompassing three key dimensions: compatibility, software size, and stability.

Compatibility determines whether the game can function properly across diverse mobile devices, hardware configurations, and operating system environments. The storage footprint refers to the amount of device memory required for installation and operation. Stability, largely dependent on code quality, reflects the game’s resistance to crashes, bugs, and performance issues during operation.

These interconnected factors collectively influence the technical performance and user experience of mobile games, making software quality optimization an essential consideration throughout the development lifecycle.

5. Discussion

The present study investigated the design characteristics of role-playing mobile games through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, employing grounded theory to construct a framework that influences users’ continued usage intention and willingness to pay based on emotional design theory. The findings delineated 16 design feature categories across four dimensions: visceral design, behavioral design, reflective design, and external conditions. This research contributes to both theoretical advancements and practical applications in the mobile gaming industry.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

This study addresses a critical research gap in mobile game design through three key contributions. First, while the existing literature has extensively examined psychological experiences in game user behavior, it has largely failed to establish how product design optimization can enhance user experience, creating a disconnect between design theory and behavioral research. Second, our qualitative study systematically identifies and classifies key design features influencing user behavior, particularly continuance intention and payment intention, while addressing the scarcity and timeliness limitations of mobile-game-specific research.

Most innovatively, we introduce emotional design theory as the theoretical foundation for dimensional classification of mobile game design features, overcoming the lack of theoretical grounding in existing systematic studies. Our proposed three-tiered model (instinctive, behavioral, and reflective design layers) corresponds to different levels of user psychological engagement, providing a novel perspective for analyzing design–user experience relationships.

Collectively, this dimensional model of mobile game design features advances theoretical discussions in the field and establishes a robust framework for future research on user behavior in gaming contexts.

5.2. Practical Implications

This study provides actionable insights for key stakeholders in the mobile gaming industry. From a development perspective, our findings offer strategic guidance for optimizing design features and allocating resources more effectively in an increasingly saturated market characterized by intense competition and product homogeneity. By prioritizing design elements that significantly impact user retention and monetization, developers can address operational challenges more efficiently while enhancing overall product quality and market competitiveness.

For instance, while open-world games have grown in popularity, their substantial development costs pose challenges for small to medium studios. Our study identifies “perceived openness” (encompassing nonlinear quests and explorable environments) as a critical design feature, enabling developers to strategically enhance these aspects without undertaking full-scale open-world development, thereby achieving an optimal balance between cost and user experience. Similarly, our dimensional model allows design and operation teams to align practical challenges with key design features for targeted optimization.

From a regulatory standpoint, this research provides evidence-based guidance for policymaking. Current monetization strategies and regulatory gaps—particularly concerning loot boxes, gacha mechanics, and youth protection—have drawn significant public scrutiny due to their potential negative impacts. Our model enables regulators to implement targeted measures such as the following: enhancing consumer protection mechanisms for probability-based items (e.g., adopting ESRB/PEGI-style warning labels alongside China’s probability disclosure requirements); or developing youth protection policies based on key design dimensions (e.g., playtime limits, spending caps); or establishing balanced regulatory frameworks that safeguard user interests while maintaining industry sustainability.

The design feature framework established in this study serves as a conceptual bridge connecting product design, user experience, and industry regulation, offering a systematic approach to promote the healthy development of mobile gaming ecosystems.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research Directions

While this study establishes a systematic and theoretically grounded framework for mobile game design features, several limitations should be acknowledged.

First, the generalizability of our findings may be constrained by the specific focus on Chinese RPG players. Cultural differences in gaming preferences and usage patterns across markets, as well as variations in design features across game genres due to their distinct gameplay mechanics, may limit the model’s broader applicability. Although RPGs represent one of the most prototypical mobile game genres, and many identified design features (e.g., visual presentation, auditory presentation) demonstrate cross-genre relevance, the framework may require adaptation for more distinctive game types such as card or puzzle games. Future research should validate the model’s effectiveness across diverse cultural contexts and game genres.

Second, while we have identified key design dimensions, their specific impacts on user behavior remain untested. Empirical studies employing experimental designs or large-scale surveys are needed to quantitatively examine these relationships. Future research could integrate actual operational challenges and design problems to empirically investigate how specific design features influence user behavioral intentions, thereby strengthening the practical implications of our findings.

Third, the rapid evolution of mobile gaming technologies (e.g., AI/AR-based monetization models and technological innovations) suggests that the framework may require continuous updates to maintain relevance. Subsequent studies could expand and supplement the model by incorporating emerging technologies and functional innovations in mobile games to enhance its comprehensiveness and timeliness.

Additionally, future research could combine qualitative insights with behavioral data analysis to reduce subjectivity and improve robustness. Addressing these limitations would significantly strengthen the model’s theoretical and practical value in guiding game design and user engagement strategies.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study employed a grounded theory-based methodology to systematically develop a dimensional model of mobile game design features, with role-playing games as the research context and emotional design theory as the conceptual foundation. The proposed model addresses a significant research gap by providing a comprehensive framework for understanding game design characteristics while offering actionable insights for both mobile game optimization and regulatory policy formulation. Future research directions may include the following: (1) investigating cross-cultural variations in design preferences to enhance the framework’s generalizability; (2) applying quantitative methods to examine the specific effects of different design features on user behavioral intentions; (3) expanding the model by incorporating emerging technologies and functional innovations. These extensions would further strengthen the model’s theoretical and practical value in the context of game design research and application.