Search Results (6)

This article explores the historical and contemporary evolution of turbat al-ḥusayn, the sacred soil of Karbala, as a central element in shaping Shīʿī identity and ritual practices. From the early Islamic centuries, turbat al-ḥusayn has served not only as a symbol of healing and blessing but also as a key component of Shīʿī collective memory. The paper examines the development of turbat rituals across three significant periods: pre-Safavid, post-Safavid, and post-revolutionary Iran. During the pre-Safavid period, including the medieval Islamic centuries, the sanctification of turbat evolved through the efforts of Shīʿī Imams such as al-Bāqir and al-Ṣādiq, who integrated it into the theological framework of wilāyah (guardianship) and Shīʿī ritual practices. This period also witnessed the gradual codification of its ritualistic and medicinal uses in foundational Shīʿī texts. During the Safavid era, turbat became institutionalized as a marker of Shīʿī identity, with its economic significance expanding through the production of prayer tablets and rosaries. Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran, turbat was reinterpreted as a symbol of martyrdom and resistance, aligning with revolutionary ideologies and narratives that paralleled the sacrifices of Karbala with contemporary struggles. The COVID-19 pandemic introduced new dimensions to turbat’s role, with its promotion as a medicinal remedy by religious figures, despite lacking historical precedent in traditional Shīʿī teachings. These developments illustrate how turbat al-ḥusayn continues to be dynamically recontextualized in response to modern challenges. The study concludes that turbat al-ḥusayn transcends its ritualistic and spiritual origins, serving as a flexible and enduring symbol of Shīʿī identity. Its evolving interpretations underscore the interplay between tradition and modernity, highlighting its ongoing relevance in both devotional life and socio-political discourse. Full article

The study aims to understand to what extent employing A.I. image-generative tools in architectural concept brainstorming demonstrates effectiveness, accuracy, and adherence to text and image inputs, and evaluate the utilization of A.I. image-generative tools in the architectural ideation phase, considering factors such as speed, creativity, and accuracy. Thus, this study will investigate using an A.I. image-generative tool, Midjourney, in the creative brainstorming stage for a Safavid mosque architectural form design process. The study will quantitatively evaluate the form proportions of mosques generated by Midjourney based on certain criteria as they pertain to the Shah Mosque as the inspiration for the design as it encompasses many of the Safavid Mosque’s typical elements and characteristics. The most matching form will then be found. The findings are that Midjourney is reliable in terms of its speed and creativity; however, it lacks accuracy and adherence to inputs. This study is essential as limited literature exists on A.I. image-generative tools in the brainstorming process of architectural projects, particularly mosque architecture. It also provides architects and designers with a framework and the pros and cons of the use of A.I. generative tools, such as Midjourney, in the ideation process for an architectural project. Full article

Raw materials significantly determine the final composition and properties of a fired ceramic. Raman analysis which characterizes micro- and nanostructures of (coloured) glazes, opacified or not, was applied to shards mostly collected before the 1960s, currently at the Louvre Museum, originated in Anatolia, the Caucasus, Iran and Central Asia, which are, for most of them, characterized by the use of black lines to separate coloured areas, and dated to the period between the 12th and 19th centuries. Measurements were carried out in the laboratory with a blue laser excitation and/or on the conservation site with a mobile device (green laser). Three types of glazes were identified by their nanostructure of the silicate network: (i) a lead-rich glaze analogous to that of Byzantine, Zirid to Hafsid and al-Andalus productions, (ii) a lead-alkali glaze typical of the Ottoman productions of Iznik-Kütahya, and (iii) a mixed (poor lead/lead-free)-alkali glaze typical of Safavid productions. The colour determines the precise composition of the glaze. The identification is not only based on the signature of the stretching mode of the SiO₄ tetrahedron (position of the wavenumber of the component(s)) but also on the position and shape of the continuous luminescence of the Raman background, characteristic of the raw materials used. Lead-tin yellow, Fe-rich, Mn-rich and Cr-rich black pigments and opacifiers made of cassiterite and wollastonite were also identified. The results (type of glaze and deduced processing temperature) were discussed in the light of the ternary phase diagrams visualizing elemental composition determined in previous works and the microstructure examination on the polished section (defining single or multistep firing cycles). Continuity was highlighted on the one hand between the tiles of Bursa, Edirne and Istanbul (Ottoman Iznik-like production) and on the other hand between those of Samarkand area (Timurid) and Iran. The procedure was then applied in the study of three objects (two dishes and a bowl) which are very representative of the productions of the Turkish-Persian cultural areas: a polychrome mina’i cup with decoration representing a rider, an Ottoman Iznik fritware with polychrome floral decoration, and a blue-and-white Safavid ceramic with a decoration representing a shrub. Full article

This study investigates the water management structures and social relations that centred around a specific qanāt line in a rural setting in Iran during the Safavid period, specifically in the mid-17th c. CE. The setting is northwest of Isfahān, near Varkān, at a site called Mobārrak Ābād. The method combines analysis of documentary evidence and remote sensing of historical aerial photography. The documentary evidence provides administrative details of a suyūrghāl grant to Mohammad Beig E’temād-al-Dowleh by Shah ‘Abbās II. In combining this with the physical characteristics of the qanāt of Mobārrak Ābād, as derived from the aerial photograph, I provide identification and analysis of the two canals providing water beyond the garden and the use of the water derived from the qanāt for agricultural irrigation and in Aranjon’s village infrastructure. The conclusions discuss the material conditions in the periphery of the prosperous and fertile Isfahān region and provide a relative dating to the qanāt and associated infrastructure. The personal and social relations that can be derived from this evidence are relations of personal and economic dependency between Mohammad Beig E´temād-al-Dowleh and the Shah on the one hand, as well as the labour relations between the peasant population living with and from the qanāt who maintain this infrastructure and the administrative superstructure on the other. The article thus provides new insights into an under-investigated subject and region in the period. Full article

The Safavid society’s approach to sexuality and gender has made it a reference for the “pre-modern” discourse, in which gender and sexuality manifest—in contemporary terminology—queerness and fluidity. While it is important not to romanticize the image of the Orient as a queer heaven, it is possible to consider Safavid society as an important site of inquiry that offers valuable insights on pre-colonial gender and sexuality. A less discussed topic in Safavid literature on gender and sexuality is gendered and sexual slavery. This study conducts a review of primary and secondary literature on the Safavid period, including Western travelogues. The paper aims to outline the relations between existing forms of captivity and factors such as gender and ethnic background. The research explores the prevalence of slavery reported in Safavid literature and how slaves’ positions were defined within social hierarchies. Full article

Cities directly influence microclimates. As the urbanization expands, and the green spaces diminish, the heat islands begin to emerge. An old technique used during the past centuries—in both hot and dry climates of the central cities of Iran—was the moderation of microclimates via water and plants. With a diachronic approach to the study of the historical Chahar Bagh Street in Isfahan, this paper investigates the impact of the structural changes on its microclimate in three different scenarios, i.e., the street with its features during the Safavid Era (from 1501 to 1736); the street in its current status; and finally a probable critical condition resulting from complete elimination of natural elements from the environment. The mixed strategy used in this study relies on logical reasoning and software-assisted evaluation for comparing the three scenarios. The predicted mean vote (PMV) model was used for measuring thermal comfort. The results indicate that the evaluated comfort-providing area in the Safavid scenario is 7–17 times more favorable than the others. Moreover, the temperature in the contemporary era was found to be 1.5 degrees Celsius cooler than that of the critical status scenario. Full article