Search Results (21)

A group of Romanesque sculptures today at the Gosudarstvennyj Istoričeskij Muzej in Moscow, coming from the restoration of the Cathedral of Saint Sophia in Kijv, can be related to the commission of Vladimir II Monomak, Grand Prince of Kijv, cultural heir of both his great-grandfather, the grand prince Vladimir I (who had founded the church between 1011 and 1037), and of his grandfather, the Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine IX: It is argued here that, alongside the Byzantine mosaicists certainly present, the sculptures are the work of a group of artists from the Lombardy lakes (also known as Comacine masters), attested in central and eastern Europe through Bavaria, Bohemia, Poland and then arriving in Sweden, active in Kijv between 1113 and 1125. It is probable that their specific origin is from Valchiavenna. Full article

Plant motifs had a significant role in ancient cultures, with decorative, artistic, and communicative values. However, little knowledge exists of the botanical composition of festoons, widely used in Greek-Roman art. We analysed 81 festoons, exclusively from sculpture artworks, collected from 13 museums and archaeological sites in Rome (1st century BC–3rd century AD). Using iconographic sources and previous data, we identified the represented species and analysed their abundance and composition using statistical methods (Cluster Analysis, Principal Components Analysis) and diversity indexes (Shannon and Evenness). We documented 3081 botanical elements, identifying 30 taxa, in which fruits with leaves (45%) or alone (10%) represented the most common ones. Laurus nobilis and Quercus cfr. robur were the most frequently depicted species, followed by “pomes” (Pyrus, Malus, Cydonia), Vitis vinifera, Punica granatum, and Ficus carica. Festoons with one or two species can be easily distinguished from those with multiple species, often arranged with figs or vine branches at the ends, with symbolic aims related to fertility, rebirth, and abundance values. A balanced botanical composition also exists, with flowers typically in the middle and a species distribution that is not casual. The results enriched our comprehension of ancient Roman society, considering funerary and celebrative events. Full article

This paper focuses on the role of the most common mineralogical techniques applied to the identification of the different statuary qualities in white, grey, and black Göktepe marble. For this purpose, the case of a Roman sculpture marble collection from the rural villa of Valdetorres de Jarama (central Iberia), dating to the 4th century AD, is presented. The mythological statuary, combining white, grey, and black marbles, is one of the most outstanding marble collections in the Aphrodisian style found in Hispania. The analytical results (achieved through Petrography, Cathodoluminescence, C and O isotopes, and Sr and Mn concentration) support the identification of two varieties of “black” Göktepe, traditionally referred to as bigio morato and bigio antico, as well as the best statuary quality of white Göktepe. In addition, the analytical identification of other Asiatic marbles in the Valdetorres collection, a white coarse-grain originally from the quarries of Aphrodisias city, and one small piece identified as Carian red from Iasos, corroborates the already suggested strong connection existing between artists and the stone material they chose for their works. Finally, the identification carried out on the marble of the bases that served as seats for the sculptures is noteworthy, as it is a white marble of lower quality whose analytical characteristics are consistent with the Microasiatic marble of Denizli. The use of these exotic and exceptional raw materials confirms the taste for luxury and decorative richness in Late Antique Hispanic rural villae and contributes to a better understanding of the distribution of Aphrodisian production and trade networks with the Western Roman provinces. Full article

The reuse of construction materials has been a consistent practice throughout the history of architecture, especially prevalent during periods of transition when it was preferred for its ability to simplify installation and reduce construction costs. This practice was particularly common in late Roman urban contexts, where construction materials, especially ashlar and sculptural elements, were abundant following the abandonment of temples and public buildings. However, there are occasions when the use of spolia, or reused materials, goes beyond simple material recycling. The reuse and display of certain pieces carry complex implications involving symbology, cultural appropriation, or collective memory exercises that convey messages through new buildings. In this paper, we focus on the unique case of Hispanic Christian architectural sculptures that were “recycled” in new buildings during the first centuries of Islamic domination of the Iberian Peninsula, specifically within places of worship. Through a general analysis and review of some examples, we aim to reflect on the motivations and intentionality behind the use of certain sculptural pieces and their placement in new buildings, which is not arbitrary. Full article

This paper presents the preliminary results of an investigation on the unexplored topic of polychromy on provincial stone sculptures from the Roman provinces in Germania through the innovative application of heritage materials science techniques. A group of three life-sized statues dating to the 1st Century CE recovered from Ingelheim, near Mainz, retains remarkably well-preserved traces of pigments. These are ripe for emerging non-invasive technologies supplemented by micro-sampling to validate results and provide information relating to mixing and layering not available to the naked eye. The most strikingly visible areas of extant polychromy were retained on the sculpture of a young woman, reported on here as the first phase of this programme of research. The results suggest that the statue was originally covered in a gypsum layer before the application of complex and diverse recipes of pigment applied as mixtures and in layers to create required hues and shadowing on sculpted features. The palette includes ochres and green earth mixed with small amounts of minium (red lead), realgar and lapis lazuli (ultramarine blue) added to create skin tones, and a vibrant blue-green tunic created from Egyptian blue, bone black, ochres, cinnabar and green earth; the palla and peplos contained ochres, bone black, and orpiment, and mixes of these created the detail of coloured jewellery. Of great interest was the detection of bone black on many features, particularly as a shading agent to enhance sculpted features, such as folds in cloth, providing a more realistic and flowing articulation. This is a revolutionary observation that provides previously unexplored insights into artistic polychromic practice in Antiquity. Full article

A selection of the most outstanding white marble sculptures from Tarraco has been archaeometrically studied to know more about the marble sources and their respective artistic workshops. All are imperial portraits of the 2nd century AD (Trajan, Hadrian, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius) and a thoracata bust assigned to Hadrian, found on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Tarragona (MNAT). The well-established multimethod approach, combining petrography, cathodoluminescence, C and O isotopes and Sr and Mn trace element composition, has revealed the use of different very fine- to fine-grained marbles of the highest quality exploited in classical times. In contrast to what was thought until now, in which all the pieces had been assigned to Luni-Carrara, this present study identifies the use of two varieties of the recently discovered site of Göktepe near Aphrodisias and Paros-lychnites marbles, being Carrara, in minority. This study confirms the importance of strontium concentration and the contribution of cathodoluminescence to distinguish Göktepe from Carrara marble, while carbon and oxygen isotopes were crucial for the identification of Cycladic marble. Finally, in line with recent published interdisciplinary studies, the marble provenance forces us to rethink the discourse on the use of marble, its sculptural workshops and its distribution in this temporal context. Full article

This paper presents the first results of a current interdisciplinary research project on the polychromy of Roman provincial stone artefacts in selected areas of the Danubian provinces (PolychroMon). The statuary group of Minerva and the Genius immunium from Carnuntum (Archaeological Museum Carnuntinum inv. CAR-S-48) is dated to the second half of the second century AD and still retains traces of the original polychromy. The aim was to focus on non-invasive techniques and to employ micro-invasive methods for necessary cross-checking and gaining information otherwise not accessible. The investigation revealed that paint was applied on a layer of white lime wash. Additionally, the object shows several traces of Egyptian blue, which was mainly detected in Minerva’s and the Genius’ clothes. Other pigments whose traces were found on the sculpture include green earth, yellow and red ochre, as well as red lead and carbon black. Microscopic analysis confirms the presence of modern-age compounds as well (barium sulphate and zinc oxide) used for modern retouches. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry revealed the use of egg as the major proteinaceous binding medium in the red lead polychromy. Full article

Animal combats (venationes) were a popular entertainment in the Roman world. Splashy panels of inlaid marble (opus sectile) commemorate these bloody contests in several buildings in and around Rome. Among the most well-known are survivals from the 4th century CE Basilica of Junius Bassus and, several decades later, the marble-revetted hall from Porta Marina at Ostia. On the face of it, the wall decoration from these sites memorializes typical Roman activities, but the panels expose the vast geography implicated in these combat spectacles. The brilliant stones used to render them came from lands as far off as the Caspian tigers and Asiatic lions they depicted. The iconography of the panels was also foreign: the animal combat, or symplegma (intertwining), is seen on works from pre-Achaemenid sculpture to Sasanian textiles, and most recognizably, at the Achaemenid palace at Persepolis, where a lion attacks a bull in relief on the Apadana stairway. Reading these panels through a Persianist lens illuminates the ways in which the Persepolitan model animated Roman themes and visual programs. Though they recalled events in the Roman arena, they also imparted political and astrological signification to the decoration by means of their Persian associations. By alluding to the Achaemenid empire, a great power of the past and a continuing rival in the form of the Sasanians, the Roman patron accrued to himself some measure of the veneration for this culture and showed himself able to communicate in an idiom legible to an international clientele. Full article

The Antonine Wall Distance Sculptures are iconic and unique sculptural reliefs that marked Rome’s most north-westerly frontier across central Scotland. Their inscribed texts and iconography depict graphic tales of frontier life, and recent non-invasive analysis has confirmed they were originally brought to life through vibrant polychromy. This paper tracks the trajectory of one Distance Sculpture that was embedded into the dramatic setting of Dunnottar Castle off the north-east coast of Scotland during the 16th century, where it was recorded as having been repainted during that episode of use. A suite of complementary analytical techniques, including pXRF, FTIR, and SEM/EDS, was recently reported on which identified pigments and surface treatments as well as their chronology of application, confirmed through stratigraphic sequencing visible in cross-section. That approach facilitated the investigation of all episodes in the itinerary of this iconic sculpted relief from the second century to the Scottish Renaissance. That vanguard research has provided an unprecedented opportunity to unravel the rich hidden history behind this unique monumental inscription and re-tell a fascinating transformational tale of a pivotal period in its past. The combination of historical, archaeological, and scientific approaches to an understudied, and overlooked, phenomenon of post-antique colouration is revolutionary in polychromy studies. It provides innovative and well-contextualised information that lifts an aesthetically modest Roman monument into a vibrant, colourful, and sumptuous decorative feature fit to grace the walls of a Renaissance castle emulating Roman imperial practices. We can now trace its journey through time by delving into the detail of its Renaissance repainting to present, for the first time, an accurate digital reconstruction as it performed for 16th century audiences. Full article

This study is concerned with recent analyses of seven marble statues from the imperial cycle of the Augusteum of Rusellae, in the south of Tuscany, Italy. The sculptures represent the deified couple Augustus and Livia, Livilla, Claudius, an anonymous young girl and a headless cuirassed emperor (maybe Domitian). In addition, a fragment of a leg, from another cuirassed statue, was also considered. All of them are preserved in the city of Grosseto, in the Maremma Archaeology and Art Museum. Still preserved traces of polychromy and gilding were investigated both in situ, using non-invasive portable techniques, and in laboratory, taking two micro-samples. The non-invasive approach was based on multi-band imaging techniques (Vis, UVL and VIL) integrated with analyses (XRF, reflectance spectroscopy). A portable optical microscopy was also used for documenting the analysed areas. Two micro-samples from the gilding decoration of the headless cuirassed statue were also analysed using EDS-SEM. Comparing the results from the analytical survey, important information about the use of ochres and Egyptian blue on the cuirassed headless Emperor statue has been highlighted with the presence of gilding in the cuirasses and in the mantle, enriching the knowledge of this important imperial cycle, in addition to contributing to the archaeological point of view. Full article

Polychromy in Ancient Greek Sculpture was the subject of the exhibition Chroma: Ancient Greek Sculpture in Color, held at The Metropolitan Museum of Art (The Met), New York, in 2022–2023. On this occasion, a multidisciplinary project involving The Met’s Departments of Greek and Roman Art, Objects Conservation, Imaging, Scientific Research, and colleagues from the Liebieghaus Polychromy Research Project in Frankfurt, Germany, was carried out to study an Attic funerary monument. The color decoration of the sphinx was reconstructed by combining non-invasive and minimally invasive techniques that provided information about surviving and lost pigments, original design, and painting technique. Results of multiband imaging, digital microscopy, and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy guided the removal of minute samples from selected areas for examination by Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy, coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, to shed light on the pigments and paint stratigraphy. The color palette included two varieties of blue, Egyptian blue and azurite, a carbon-based black pigment, two reds, cinnabar and red ocher, and yellow ocher, all painted directly over the marble without a preparation layer. The scientific findings informed the physical reconstruction of the sphinx made by archaeologists from the Liebieghaus Polychromy Research Project, featured in the exhibition. Full article

A multi-technique approach combining petrographic, cathodoluminescence, and stable isotope analyses is commonly used in provenance studies of archaeological marbles. In the present paper, this characterization approach transcends provenance, and it is applied to the reconstruction of fragmented sculptures. The potential of this novel application of archaeometric measurements is illustrated with a case study consisting in 16 scattered marble fragments retrieved from a Roman villa (Els Munts) near Tarraco (presently Northeastern Spain). The samples were grouped taking into account their similarity in quantified parameters such as the cathodoluminescence color clusters and the stable carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios. The results permitted classification of the fragments into three groups corresponding to three different statues depicting Antinous (7 fragments), Minerva goddess (4 fragments), and an undetermined character (3 fragments). Two other fragments could not be ascribed to any particular statue. The archaeometric grouping provides arguments that can be used to confirm or refute archaeological hypotheses of statue reconstructions. Full article

Few instances of material evidence for ancient colour restorations have been documented over the last 20 years, during which time the scientific approach to the study of polychromy has been defined. This article presents eight new cases of ancient restoration of colour from the Roman Imperial Age. By combining observations in visible and UV light and video microscopy with a micro-stratigraphic approach, MA-X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, and contextual archaeological data, we have observed evidence which could suggest an aesthetic change in the use of colour between the 2nd and 4th centuries CE: from polychrome and multitone effects to the use of monochromatic, flat, and uniform colour finishes. Full article

This archaeometric study is focused on the marble used in a group of fragmented sculptures found at the Roman villa of Quinta das Longas (Elvas, Portugal). Dating from the 4th century AD, the pieces are of remarkable quality and correspond to ideal and mythological figures from several iconographic cycles. The numerous fragments, all of very fine-grained white marble, are associated with the ornamentation of an impressive nymphaeum of the villa. Their high level of sculpture technique and style, the models followed and their similar typology to other well-known parallels raise the hypothesis of being linked with Aphrodisian workshops. Using a well-established multi-method approach, with Optical microscopy, X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD), qualitative and quantitative cathodoluminescence (CL) by CL-Optical and CL-SEM, and stable C and O isotopic and trace element analytical techniques (IRMS and ICP-AES), together with complementary parameters obtained from electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr isotopes, the marble provenance can be identified with certainty. The results all point to the best quality of white Göktepe marble, confirming the stylistic connection to the ancient Carian sculptors. Full article

Archaeometric studies on mosaics often concentrate only on glass tesserae, while comprehensive studies including both stone and glass tesserae are scarce; however, both types of tesserae can sometimes bring relevant data to elaborate archaeological knowledge on a studied mosaic. In this paper, a representative set of tesserae from a large polychrome Roman mosaic retrieved in Barcelona (NE Spain) is investigated using various methods. Most of the techniques were directly applied on samples prepared as petrographic thin sections (including polarized-light, cathodoluminescence and electron microscopies, and synchrotron through-the-substrate μX-ray diffraction). The results indicate that, from the ten sampled stone tesserae, there are (i) seven limestones, one of them identified as Alveolina limestone (early Eocene) from the southern Pyrenees (ii) two sandstones from Barcelona’s Montjuïc hill (Miocene) and, (iii) a Carrara white marble from the Apuan Alps (Italy). The profuse presence of tesserae of both local and imported materials with well-known uses in architecture, epigraphy, and sculpture could imply that tesserae were a by-product of their main use. Two different production technologies were identified for the three sampled glass tesserae. The concurrent use of antimony- and tin-based opacifiers is in agreement with the accepted archaeological chronology of the mosaic (4th century AD). Full article