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Article

Assessing the Perception and Value of Marine Biodiversity and Taxonomy Research by the Recreational Diving Tourism Industry in Thailand

by
Wan Chantavilasvong
1,2,
Pin Udomcharoenchaikit
3,4 and
Rahul Mehrotra
1,*
1
Aow Thai Marine Ecology Center, Love Wildlife Foundation, Bangkok 10120, Thailand
2
Nature and City Scape Analytics, Bangkok 10260, Thailand
3
Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
4
Urban Studies Lab, Bangkok 10120, Thailand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Reg. Sci. Environ. Econ. 2025, 2(3), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/rsee2030026
Submission received: 1 July 2025 / Revised: 13 August 2025 / Accepted: 14 August 2025 / Published: 25 August 2025
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

The 21st century has seen marine tourism in Southeast Asia transform in response to the rapid growth of SCUBA diving and snorkeling activities in the natural environment. However, despite this level of integration between recreation and the natural environment, few assessments have ever been conducted on the biodiversity or ecosystem values and experiences of the SCUBA diving community. Therefore, we explored the awareness, preferences and priorities of this community, with a particular emphasis on investigating the role of biodiversity documentation and species discoveries in motivating recreational diving. By conducting surveys of 366 recreational divers from Thailand, we were able to identify proportional priorities, finding greater valuation towards overall ecosystem esthetics than megafauna, with species-specific dive experiences being a niche but present interest. We also investigated diver priorities based on recently described or discovered marine fauna in Thai waters, focusing on five species of hard and soft coral, seven species of sea slug, and two species of shark. Of these, sea slug species were the most recognized and garnered the greatest potential economic value, likely due to their popularity with photographers. The results of this multidisciplinary investigation highlight the economic value of taxonomy and biodiversity research to the recreational SCUBA community.

1. Introduction

For over 30 years, growing attention has been given to the field of taxonomic research, which has seen marked declines [1,2,3], whereas other fields of fundamental biology have continued to grow and thrive [4]. The leading causes for this decline have been attributed to low resource allocation and/or direct funding towards such research, as well as the need for complex training in taxonomic skills, among other factors [4,5]. In the former case, this is believed to be driven by a low perceived economic value of taxonomic research to broader society, as well as a perception of lower importance and urgency than many other fields of biology. Despite such challenges, recent years have seen a rapid increase in the amount of taxonomic research carried out in Thai waters, including the descriptions of multiple new species of corals, sea slugs, and sharks [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. Furthermore, publicity of such new discoveries often promotes engagement within the SCUBA diving community in Thailand, thus leading to an increase in activity to find rare or cryptic taxa.
Since SCUBA diving was first introduced in the 1930s, the activity has grown significantly and has become a popular recreational tourism activity globally [17]. Between the inception of the Professional Association of Dive Instructors (PADI) in 1967 and 2020, the institution has issued over 28 million dive certifications from dive centers around the world [18]. Among the most comprehensive assessments on the global value of coral reef tourism, the global reef’s value to tourism is estimated at nearly USD 36 billion [19], and more specifically, the SCUBA diving industry is estimated to contribute between USD 8.5 and 20.4 billion to the global economy [20]. Thailand was identified as one of the ten leading destinations with the highest values, with approximately USD 1.1 billion coming from on-reef tourism alone [19]. In 2022, the global diving tourism market size was valued at almost four billion USD and is expected to grow at a compounding rate of 10.4% annually between 2023 and 2030 [21]. In Thailand, where tourism has contributed greatly to the country’s economic growth, SCUBA diving has also followed a similar growing trend. The annual Thailand Dive Expo (TDEX) has seen a SCUBA business growth from THB 10 billion (USD 275 million) in 2017 (https://www.bangkokbiznews.com/business/754537, accessed on 15 September 2024) to THB 16 billion (USD 440 million) in 2019 (https://www.brandage.com/article/12356/NEO, accessed on 15 September 2024). The growth is due to the accessibility and affordability of diving equipment, sites, and services as well as the growing demand for learning, experiencing, and connecting to the underwater environment [17].
As economic values from diving tourism industry burgeon, diving communities have become significant stakeholders influencing marine conservation policies and efforts. Attempts to conserve marine life, biodiversity, and ecosystems across the globe often rely on studies of divers’ willingness to pay (WTP) to assess cultural ecosystem services, interests in participation, and economic feasibility [22,23,24,25]. The relationship between marine biodiversity and recreational diving tourism has been studied globally, especially as it pertains to economic values being one of the key driving forces of marine management, protection, and conservation efforts [26,27,28]. Divers with strong environmental values and awareness of marine ecosystems have also begun to play significant roles in conservation funding, sustainable diving practices, and conservation projects [6,29,30,31], especially through marine citizen science (MCS) programs [32,33].
Aside from exposure to marine environmental education via SCUBA training and activities, MCS programs often focus on either action-based, conservation, investigation, or virtual projects to crowdsource data collection and build collective efforts on coastal ocean environments [34,35]. This growing scientific awareness and engagement in marine citizen science activities can further support decision-making towards marine and coastal management policy or programs [36]. More importantly, the knowledge in basic marine science can help prevent negative impacts on marine ecosystems from malpractice in diving (e.g., reef contact and coral breakage) and other types of diving-induced impacts (e.g., boat anchorage and garbage disposals) [37,38,39,40], which have encouraged studies on reef sites’ carrying capacity and management [26,41,42].
In Thailand, SCUBA diving has promoted remarkable advances in biodiversity documentation via citizen science [43], as well as contributed to localized damage and stress to marine habitats [40,44]. Through SCUBA diving, citizen science has also recently been successfully utilized in a nation-wide assessment on the ecological impact of discarded fishing gear in the marine habitats of Thailand [45]. Assessments on population status and migratory behaviors of whale sharks also have a long history of being driven by the SCUBA diving community in Thailand [46,47].
In this research, we survey recreational divers in Thai waters to investigate their perception and interests in the growing trends in marine taxonomic research in Thailand, specifically of sea slugs, corals, and sharks. We investigate whether taxonomic discoveries can hold value to the recreational diving community, which can be further translated into direct economic value. Furthermore, through the survey, we also seek to understand divers’ interests and understanding of scientific discoveries to see opportunities and challenges in MCS and science communication. Finally, we incorporate the breadth of our results to allow for a discussion into the present status and future directions on the relationship between the Thai SCUBA industry and the marine environments it depends on.

2. Methodology

Between September and November 2023, an online survey (see Supplementary Materials) investigating diving experiences and preferences was conducted with the goal of randomly sampling divers with SCUBA experiences in Thai waters who are 18 years old or above. The bilingual survey (Thai and English) was widely distributed in various online diving communities including dive centers, dive leaders, liveaboard groups, and other online diving communities. At the end of the survey period, we received a total of 366 respondents (n = 366) after removal of invalid responses (i.e., divers under 18 years old and divers who have not dived in Thai waters). Without any recent data on the number of divers in Thailand, this research assumes the population size (N) of divers in Thailand over 18 years old to be between 10,000 and 100,000. We estimate a sample size (n) to be n = 384 with a margin of error of 5% and a confidence interval of 95% [48]. However, as we could not obtain more samples, the findings of this research have the margin of error of 5.12% with a confidence level of 95% using the n = z 2 × p ^ ( 1 − p ^ ) ε 2 N statistical formula for unlimited population size (N).
The questions were designed with the concept of willingness to pay (WTP), the methodology of which has been used often in valuing environmental resources [49,50,51,52]. The survey was divided into five sections (see Supplement A for full survey). The first asks for personal information including age and nationality. The second section asks about diving experiences both in terms of dive logs, certifications, experiences in Thai waters, and evaluation of diving objectives. These questions were asked to understand divers’ experience and their relevance to conservation behaviors, which are often correlated [53] and help to provide granularity in policy discussions. The third and fourth sections ask about divers’ perspectives toward new biodiversity records and newly described species, respectively, each of which includes levels of importance, following taxonomy research news, and dives with goals to find newly recorded biodiversity. In these sections, questions are focused on divers’ interests, priorities, and awareness regarding biodiversity and taxonomic discoveries. Additionally, valuation of their WTP was estimated from the reported number of dives they would do with specific goals in mind. Lastly, the fifth section asks about divers’ awareness of each of the 14 specific species records in Thai waters, and depending on their awareness, if they have paid or are willing to pay for diving trips to see the species in the wild. While the survey questions specifically ask for sentiments upon biodiversity records and new species discoveries, answers to the questions can also suggest proportions of the diving communities that are interested in broader ecotourism.
In the context of this research, “new species” refers to a recently found and described species that has not been previously described to science; and “new biodiversity record” refers to a species that has been previously described but has not been previously documented from a given specific habitat, location or depth range.
The number of dives with goals to find newly recorded biodiversity in the fourth section is asked in ranges of dives (i.e., 0, 1–5, 6–10, 11–20, and >20 dives) and is interpreted as their willingness to pay. To estimate economic values from taxonomic records and studies, we assumed conservatively that there are 10,000 divers in Thai waters (N = 10,000) and the cost per dive is between THB 1500–2700 (USD 45–85 with the exchange rate of THB 33.22 = USD 1) as per market observation in Thailand. Then, we calculated the number of divers for each answer: D   =   N   ×   x   n , where N = 10,000, n = 366, and x = number of respondents for each answer. The valuation was performed under 3 scenarios. Scenario A is the low economic valuation: V A   =   ∑ ( d l × 1500 ) , where d l is the lower dive bracket of each answer (i.e., 1, 6, 11, and 21) and 1500 is the lower cost bracket. Scenario C is the high economic valuation: V C   =   ∑ ( d u × 2100 ) , where d u is the upper dive bracket of each answer (i.e., 5, 10, 20, and 30, with 30 as an assumed missing higher bracket of option >20) and 2700 is the higher cost bracket. Scenario B is the mid economic valuation: V B   =   ∑ ( d m × 2100 ) , where d m is the mid-range of each answer (i.e., 3, 8, 15.5, and 25.5) and 1500 is the lower cost bracket.
The 14 species in the survey were chosen based on their recent description or discovery from Thai waters and were presented to respondents taxonomically (Figure 1). These species were also chosen to represent a wide array of several traits, based on which context-specific information could be gathered. The first group represents five species of anthozoan coral (Cnidaria: Anthozoa) which have been described or first documented from Thailand within the past two decades. This group has unique traits among the three in that (1) species cannot always (or at all) be identified from in situ photo identification alone, typically needing at least skeletal information; (2) the subject group is not well represented among discussions and photographs observed in social media during the preliminary assessment; and (3) these species are nonetheless readily accessible to the recreational diving community in Thailand. The next group corresponds to seven species of sea slug (Gastropoda: Heterobranchia), which is a popular subject group for underwater photography and can usually be identified to species level based on imagery alone [43]. The species of sea slug used are all described from Thai waters within the past two decades, and as a whole are commonly discussed on diving community’s social media platforms. The final group in the surveys includes two species of sharks, both of which are recently described from fish markets in Thailand. Both species represent a wider group of popular scuba diving subjects (sharks); however, no known sightings or photographs of living specimens in situ are believed to exist for either species as they are largely believed to be (or have been) living in deeper waters or have been extirpated from their native range [15,16].

Data Management and Handling

Raw data from the online survey were cleaned and coded in Excel (see Supplement B for data cleaning documentation). Thereafter, all analyses were performed using various libraries on python (v2024.14.1) including pandas (v2.2.2) [54] for data management, numpy (v1.23.5) [55] and statsmodels (v0.14.0) [56] for statistical and simple linear regression analyses, and seaborn (v0.13.2) [57] and matplotlib (v3.9.0) [58] for data visualization. Specifically in the simple linear regression analyses, we used statsmodels’ regression.linear_model.OLS function, which applied ordinary-least-square methodology to test for correlation between various variables. Additional analyses were performed in Excel, and additional stylization of data visualization were made using Adobe Illustrator (2023).

3. Results

3.1. Demographic and Diving Objectives

Respondents’ demographic shows that the average age of divers in Thailand is 35.63 years old with the majority of divers aged between 30 and 41 years old and the eldest diver aged 69. As survey distribution channels targeted the diving community in Thailand, 87.43% of respondents are Thais and the rest 12.57% are foreigners from 22 countries across the globe. A total percentage of 74.04% of respondents have either only (100%) or mostly (75–99%) dived in Thai waters, leaving the rest (25.96%) to have dived between 1 and 74% of the time in Thai waters.
About 50% of divers have logged between 70 and 420 dives, with the least experienced diver only having performed 4 dives at the time of this study, and the most experienced having performed 15,000 dives. In all, divers in Thai waters have logged an average of 578 dives.
Most of the diving community in Thailand (58.2%) prioritize “seeing beautiful reefs, shipwrecks, or ecosystems” as very important (Figure 2). Other high-priority objectives (rating 4–5) of diving include “seeing lots of fish”, “finding big animals”, “finding rare or cryptic species”, and “visiting a new dive site or location”. Conversely, “finding newly described species” has a relatively equal distribution of importance priority suggesting that it is an existing but niche market.
Cross examining the importance levels of diving objectives with the respondents’ diving experience via simple linear regression shows inconclusive statistical correlations with p-values all exceeding 0.05 or has a coefficient close to 0 (see Table S1 in Supplement C). However, descriptive statistics of diving priorities based on quartile distributions and means of diving experience reveal numerous trends of note (Figure 3). The mean and median trends of diving experiences grow higher as more importance is given to “finding rare or cryptic species” (Figure 3A) and “finding newly described species” (Figure 3B). On the contrary, the mean and median trends of diving experiences lower as more importance is given to “finding big animals” (Figure 3C) and “seeing lots of fish” (Figure 3D). Furthermore, the mean and median trends of diving experiences remain roughly the same regardless of given importance to “seeing a beautiful reef, shipwreck, or ecosystem” (Figure 3E) and “visiting a new dive site or location” (Figure 3F). While further studies can unveil clearer statistical relationships, these data alone show that experienced divers are more likely to have a niche interest such as finding rare, cryptic, and newly described species.

3.2. Divers’ Interests and Behaviors Regarding New Biodiversity and New Species Records

While most divers do not give high priority to “finding newly described species,” 35.79% of divers are actively following news about new biodiversity records in Thai waters either through their friends, word of mouth, social media, or formal media (Table 1). Even more so, an overwhelming 58.74% of divers are interested in hearing about this kind of news despite not actively following them. This leaves a mere 5.46% of divers who are not interested in such discoveries at all. This trend is also statistically significant when compared to respondents’ dive experiences (see Table S2 in Supplement C), which means that the more dive experiences they have, the more likely they are going to be interested in following this news. A similar statistically significant trend is also present for following news of new species records (Table 1). These data suggest that a marked portion of divers in Thai waters are interested in outcomes and studies of taxonomic research. Furthermore, this group of divers are often those with more diving experience (Figure 4A,B).
With regard to how diving priorities may translate to diving behaviors, our findings also show that most divers (67.21%) report that they “actively spend more of their dive time looking at an animal that they have not seen before”, and some (14.75%) “often plan whole dives looking for new/rare species or biodiversity records” (Table 2). On average, these two groups of divers have performed 37.17 dives with specific goals of finding a newly recorded biodiversity in Thai waters. On the contrary, 16.67% of divers “like recognizing what they see or learning about them later, but that is about it”, and a few individuals (1.09%) do not give importance at all (Figure 4C). Despite their low interests, these two groups have also performed an average of 3.51 dives with specific goals looking for marine biodiversity. Additionally, the data also indicate that divers who are interested in looking for new biodiversity and species records tend to be those with more diving experience (Figure 4C). This trend also has a statistically significant correlation with dive experiences—the more experienced divers are, the more likely they find looking for biodiversity important to their experience (see Table S2 in Supplement C).
Aside from 30.87% of divers who report that they would not spend any dives looking for a particular new species, the remaining 69.13% report that they would; 29.51% would spend 1–5 dives, 13.93% would spend 6–10 dives, 6.56% would spend 11–20 dives, and 19.13% would spend more than 20 dives looking for one particular new species (Table 3).
Not only does this statistic show that up to two thirds of divers have interests in species-specific dives, the number of dives also signifies their willingness to pay. Inferring from the number of dives that divers would spend looking for one particular species that they are interested in, data show that potential economic gains from species-specific dives can range from THB 85.18 million (USD 2.56 million) to THB 267.83 million (USD 8.06 million) (Table 3). Additionally, as divers with more experience also statistically correlate to having more willingness to invest in their number of dives to see specific species (Figure 4D and see Table S2 in Supplement C), this can create a virtuous loop of willingness to pay for species-specific dives in the future as well.

3.3. Awareness and Willingness to Pay for Specific Species

Sea slugs (Gastropoda: Heterobranchia), as mentioned in Section 2, are often visibly identifiable and are more commonly discussed among divers than specific coral or shark species. While awareness of each species varies, more than half of divers in Thai waters—ranging from 51.78% for Unidentia aliciae to 63.11% for Castasiella coronata)—are willing to pay or have already paid to see each of them in the wild (Figure 5A). On the contrary, specific coral species (Cnidaria: Anthozoa) are slightly less attractive with the divers’ willingness to pay or have paid to see each of these species in the wild—the numbers range from 35.07% for Acropora sirikitiae to 46.45% for Chironephthya sirindhornae (Figure 5B). While awareness of coral species founded in Thai waters range between 30.33% (Tubastraea stimpsonii) to 46.45% (Chironephthya sirindhornae), awareness of Acropora sirikitiae is much higher than other species with 73.70% of divers reporting that they know of the species.
Specific shark species, as part of the big animal group, are of interest to many divers reporting to pay or have paid to see them in the wild: 59.45% for Carcharhinus obsoletus and 60.27% for Mustelus andamanensis (Figure 5C). It should be noted, however, that neither species has been observed alive in situ, with the former species believed to be extirpated or extinct (see Section 4); therefore, results pertaining to species-specific observations are likely unreliable and are reflective of regional biodiversity awareness. This aspect is indeed an influencing factor in all specific taxa included in this study, as they rely on a pre-requisite awareness and knowledge on accurate identification of a given species. Therefore, these findings must be viewed within the context of perceived willingness, despite taxon specificity being tied closely to biodiversity awareness.

4. Discussion

In Thailand, studies of economic valuation of marine and coastal ecosystems exist albeit sparingly [59,60,61,62,63]. This study expands on the relationship between marine biodiversity and recreational diving tourism to further highlight values of biodiversity and taxonomic research toward the recreational diving tourism industry, and vice versa. This research also goes hand in hand with efforts in achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals; SDG 14: Life Below Water. Recognizing that conservation and the sustainable use of marine resources require greater effectiveness from Blue Economy financing, the growing diving tourism industry can contribute greatly by fostering more awareness, engagement, and contributions to marine conservation [20,64,65]. The findings of this research further suggest that marine science and conservation can co-benefit from one another and can be combined as a powerful effort in achieving SDG14.
Through the surveyed data, we found three discussion points of note: (1) economic value of biodiversity and taxonomy research, (2) demand for science communication, and (3) readiness for citizen science programs, all of which are fundamental to conservation efforts and need to be integrated as part of marine policies. While this research provides a case example of Thailand, our study offers relevance to other coastal countries across the globe as well.

4.1. Biodiversity and Taxonomy Research Has Immediate Economic Values

While marine biodiversity is globally known to be under threat via climate change, over consumption, and other human disturbances [45,66,67,68], biodiversity and taxonomy research can play an essential role in establishing the baseline and understanding of the biogeography and ecology of species for more effective conservation [2,69,70]. However, such long-term benefits can often be overshadowed by current economic demands, especially for developing countries [71,72]. In response, the results of this research suggest that biodiversity and taxonomy research can generate immediate economic gains and are worthwhile investments for research funders.
As discussed in Section 3.2, the estimated average valuation of dives with aims to see a particular new species among divers in Thai waters can be as high as THB 157.01 million (USD 4.73 million) (Table 3). This value is meager compared to the billions of Thai Baht in total diving business revenue reported from the Thailand Dive Expo (TDEX), as mentioned in the introduction. However, such high economic values can serve as grounds to motivate more biodiversity and taxonomic research funding, including new biodiversity and species descriptions, on the basis that such studies can help engender substantial financial benefits through recreational diving tourism in addition to adding fundamental knowledge to scientific communities.
Specifically, descriptions and discoveries of sea slug species, and potentially other rare or cryptic species, can contribute to the highest economic value among the three groups of species in this research (Figure 2, Figure 5B). Unsurprising trends are found among species within this group: larger and more colorful species (Armina spp. and U. aliciae) are more readily recognized and garnered a greater perceived value than smaller and less colorful species (P. hyllebergi and C. coronata) (Figure 5B). Interestingly, the highly cryptic nature of Phestilla viei has motivated its recognition and perceived value as an attractive challenge among the SCUBA community. Due to the group’s visually identifiable quality, interest in these species among divers in Thai waters has materialized as specialized diving trips, photographic hobbyists, as well as social media groups and pages. This unique group of enthusiasts has contributed to a sizeable economic value in direct diving activities as well as related-markets such as camera equipment and species-inspired merchandise in Thailand.
On the other hand, specific coral species have slightly less economic value compared to the recreational diving community (Figure 5A). However, when corals are observed together as part of a diverse and vibrant reef, the economic value and interest level rise (Figure 2), similarly to global assessments on reef valuation [73]. Meanwhile, species-specific values may emerge indirectly; for example, seekers of sea slugs (e.g., Phestilla) and other cryptic species need to be able to recognize which specific coral species are their food or hosts.
As for megafauna in Thailand, data and economic valuation at present have mostly been assessed through fisheries and bycatch markets [60] with a few that explore shark tourism [74]. Over a decade ago, shark tourism in Palau alone was estimated to be generating USD 18 million per year [75]. This highlights the need for considerably more effort to be made on marine resource valuation in Thai waters as a means to best evaluate economic costs and benefits and justify sustainable marine resource use.
Additionally, a unique case study recently emerged from the rediscovery of Neptune’s cup sponge (Cliona patera)—a species which was once believed to be close to extinction—highlighting the Gulf of Thailand as a previously unreported hotspot of such marine life [76]. Following the publication, a trial was made to bring a selected group of paying marine biodiversity enthusiasts to observe these recently discovered animals in the wild. As a result, photos and the story of the species’ endangered status were widely shared on social media, and in turn, reached various national news outlets (https://www.bangkokbiznews.com/environment/1096908, accessed on 15 September 2024; https://www.ejan.co/environment/ukiahfj1m7?mibextid=Zxz2cZ#loe894us4rnsce29l58, accessed on 15 September 2024; https://www.thairath.co.th/news/society/2736885, accessed on 15 September 2024). Furthermore, demand for sightings of these rare sponges among the recreational community increased rapidly. If mismanaged, the dissemination of the location of these sessile animals may be a cause of conservation concern. However, at present, this demand exists as a contemporary example of the potential economic value of biodiversity discoveries.

4.2. Science Communication Is in Demand and Can Help Fulfill Knowledge Gaps in Marine Biodiversity and Conservation

Science communication, as a method of scientific knowledge distribution to the wider general public, can further encourage the public to better understand the importance of scientific discoveries and to provide informed perspectives toward policy decisions [77,78,79]. While the valuations of this research are based on the current situation of information dissemination, continued growth and increasing access to biodiversity education and science communication can further increase biodiversity-specific tourism activities.
The majority of surveyed divers in Thailand are already interested in hearing about news on new biodiversity and species discoveries, and some are even actively following such reports (Table 1), with the awareness of sea slug species being the highest among the three groups (Figure 5B). Moreover, this interest also transpires into their diving behaviors and economic benefits as the majority report to have actively spent more of their diving time looking at animals that they have not seen before, and some often plan whole dives looking for new/rare species or biodiversity records (Table 2). Meanwhile, science communication and public awareness remains lacking in many fronts—specifically, this research recognizes such gaps for shark and coral species.
The shark species in this research are almost impossible for divers to witness in the wild as they are described from fish markets, believed to mostly inhabit deep water, and sightings or photographs of living specimens in situ have never been reported. Additionally, C. obsoletus is critically endangered (possibly extinct) with no verified records of individuals in many decades [16,80]. Despite this fact, divers’ report on their willingness to witness and belief of having paid to witness these species in the wild also hints at a misunderstanding and a need to improve science communication. On the other hand, divers’ show of willingness to pay can instead be applied to larger knowledge sharing between academic and recreational communities (Figure 5C).
Similarly, species-specific responses for corals indicated somewhat widespread awareness and familiarity with being observed in situ across all species (Figure 5A), despite multiple species being associated with highly localized ranges within Thailand [8,10,81]. Notably, Nanipora sp. [81] and T. stimpsonii [10] have both been recorded (within Thailand) as cryptic and exclusively from highly specific sites around the island of Koh Tao. The misperception of so many divers having paid to see them in the wild is likely due to the challenges in species identification based on living specimens of most corals, typically requiring comprehensive familiarity with skeletal and developmental morphology. Once again, however, responses indicate a willingness for divers to invest both time and resources to familiarize themselves with such taxa.
Despite such a gap in awareness, inter-group interactions can also indirectly create more demand for knowledge of another group as well. Examples of this are nudibranchs in the genus Phestilla, which are mostly coral-feeding gastropods that have evolved to be highly selective and constrained in their prey. Each species of this nudibranch genus may be found feeding on only a single or few closely related coral species and thus are typically only found in direct association with specific species of corals. Subsequently, indirect demand to learn coral identification grew. The popularity of these nudibranchs as subjects of underwater photography is well established [28] and the dramatic rise in reported observations of these new coral-feeding species on citizen science platforms such as iNaturalist(https://www.inaturalist.org/observations?place_id=6967&subview=map&taxon_id=47113&view=species, accessed on 15 September 2024) and Thailand’s own ‘Sea Slug Thailand’ (https://www.facebook.com/groups/2310677425883599, accessed on 15 September 2024) is highly indicative of increased awareness and interest in recognizing and distinguishing corals, often to a species level.
This research provides ample evidence of the demand and the gaps for knowledge and potential economic values of scientific communication from biodiversity and taxonomy research, which should be integrated as part of marine conservation policies. Moreover, knowledge of inter-group/species relationships can also provide inspiration for people to learn about other related groups as well. Improvement of communication effectiveness and educational outreach to diving communities in Thailand, and abroad, are much needed to better conserve and mitigate harmful engagement with often-endangered organisms found within recreational diving sites as well as to generate economic values that help to support more biodiversity and taxonomy research.

4.3. Recreational Diving Communities Are Ready for Citizen Science Program Integration

At the broadest sense, greater awareness of marine biodiversity and its changes (new records or species extirpations) promotes a better-informed diving community on the widespread ecological changes faced by marine environments. The diving and marine tourism community in many regions, including Thailand, is among the largest and fastest growing stakeholders in coastal marine environments. Beyond improved science communication among the general public, a deeper integration of local biodiversity and changes to habitats into marine tourism activities is warranted (e.g., SCUBA trips and training courses). Divers with proper awareness and protection protocols of marine species and ecosystems can effectively help protect the biodiversity of the environment. As one of the fastest growing demographics of society directly effecting/effected by coastal marine biodiversity, divers can become champions of marine environment and citizen scientists, which can, in turn, further help to sustain diving businesses and to improve local biodiversity knowledge as well [17,82,83].
In a recent assessment of SCUBA diver perspectives with regard to marine conservation behavior [53], the degree of “Recreational Specialization” was strongly associated with increased concern for marine conservation issues and responsible diving practices. While the concept of recreational specialization is hard to narrowly define, indications towards greater specialization were based on binary subjective states regarding identification of a survey participant under the label of “diver” or “professional diver” or identification with diving being a major aspect of a participant’s lifestyle. The data presented in this study support the growing evidence that greater diver experience and broader recreational specialization can in turn drive greater engagement with marine resources as well as greater demand for awareness and responsible diving practices.
Our findings indicate that a significant proportion of divers, while not the majority, have interests in new biodiversity records and new species discoveries (Table 1). Our data also shows that divers in Thailand who are interested in marine biodiversity and taxonomy research are statistically correlated with those with more diving experience (Figure 4A–C). Yet, the general trend based on means and medians of diving experiences indicates that many beginners with few dives logged also report to be very interested, while many experienced divers, in contrast, reported to be uninterested in scientific discoveries or understanding. This goes to show that diving, as a nature-based tourism activity, is already attracting environment/sustainability-interested individuals. As more people with interest in environmental sustainability join the diving community, the diving tourism industry can shift to become a steward in marine environmental protection and knowledge generation. However, while we found no correlation between diver experience and interest with biodiversity discoveries explicitly, our trend lines do agree with earlier research [84] where more experienced divers prefer finding “rare and cryptic species” whereas less experienced divers prefer “finding big animals.”
One of the benefits of a better-informed community of marine recreational divers and snorkelers is the deeper integration of the community within marine science and conservation efforts. In Thailand, the diving community’s interest and/or awareness of marine biodiversity have directly facilitated the documentation of new and rare species [59], documented the widespread threats to marine life from derelict and discarded fishing gear [47], and identified stinging jellyfish seasons to improve public safety [85]. Additionally, the Thai Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR.go.th) has relied on reporting and volunteering from recreational marine tourism community to document the scale of significant threats to coral reefs such as severe coral bleaching and entanglement in fishing nets.
As demonstrated in earlier research, SCUBA diver experience, biodiversity interests, and environmental impacts have strong associations between one another [53,84]. However, despite all the positive impacts created by such associations, negative impacts also persist. For example, the relationship between poorly trained and inexperienced SCUBA divers and increased direct damage and negligence on reef environments has been recognized for decades [86,87,88]. A particular emphasis has also been made on the role of underwater photography and increased damage to nearby habitats due to distractions [87]. Regardless, by leaning in on the positive impacts of well-informed diving communities, experienced underwater photographers, and naturalists through citizen science programs, we can increase marine conservation efforts and biodiversity documentation at the same time.

5. Conclusions

This research offers an integrative perspective between scientific discoveries and recreational tourism to seek direct/indirect benefits of biodiversity and taxonomic knowledge to research investment policies, conservation policies, as well as diving tourism policies. The results show the demand for biodiversity-centered diving experiences and willingness among divers to invest in opportunities to observe rare and newly described species in Thai waters. Notably, cryptic species such as Phestilla viei and larger and more colorful species such as Armina spp. generated substantial interest, supporting the argument that biodiversity and taxonomy research can contribute directly to national economic growth through tourism-related revenue.
Through these findings, three key insights emerged: (1) biodiversity and taxonomic discoveries can generate measurable economic value; (2) science communication is essential for correcting misconceptions and enhancing public engagement; and (3) recreational diving communities are ready for deeper involvement through citizen science programs. These findings suggest that strategic investment in marine biodiversity research can yield dual returns by supporting both conservation efforts and sustainable economic development. Estimates on economic costs associated with ongoing coral reef and biodiversity loss vary; however, even the most conservative estimates from the turn of the century place these be in the order of hundreds of millions of USD [89]. This research thus serves as momentous grounds to motivate funding toward marine biodiversity and taxonomy research studies in the name of both economic development and marine conservation.
This research serves as a foundation for many more interdisciplinary studies in the fields of marine science, conservation, and science policies. Future work can further explore how knowledge of inter-group or species-specific ecological relationships can serve as gateways for divers to develop interest in broader ecological systems. In parallel, investigations into the motivations and learning pathways of environmentally conscious divers may help inform the design of citizen science programs that not only contribute to ecological monitoring but also foster long-term conservation stewardship. Comparative studies across diving destinations in Southeast Asia and beyond could further identify transferable models for integrating biodiversity research, recreational tourism, and policy development in ways that are both locally grounded and globally relevant.
Other coastal and developing countries can also benefit from the acknowledgement of this relationship and expand on this research to seek contextualized understanding. Additionally, this research can be further expanded to inform more in-depth and place-based policy directions pertaining to marine resource management and allocation (e.g., zonation, site use, marine protection areas, etc.). Policy topics such as marine spatial planning can be integrated with willingness to pay among other measures. An example may include management of dive site access in high biodiversity or sensitive areas, which can be exclusive to experienced SCUBA divers, who might be considered less damaging than less experienced divers. This research shows that more funding on marine biodiversity and taxonomic research can contribute to enhancing the prosperity of diving-related industries as well as improving sustainability by means of divers becoming protectors of marine life.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/rsee2030026/s1, Supplement A: Survey Questionnaire used in this study; Supplement B: Data dictionary of survey results; Supplement C: Tables of Additional Analyses conducted.

Author Contributions

Study conception, design and data collection was carried out by W.C., P.U., and R.M. Data validation and analysis was carried out by W.C. The first draft of this manuscript was written and reviewed by W.C., P.U., and R.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, the Belmont report, CIOMS guidelines, and the Principle of the international conference on harmonization—Good clinical practice (ICH-GCP) and approved by the Research Ethics Review Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects: The Second Allied Academic Group in Social Sciences, Humanities and Fine and Applied Art of CHULALONGKORN UNIVERSITY (Project umber 660306, CoA No. 365/66 approved on 26 September 2023).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Chantavilasvong, W.; Udomcharoenchaikit, P.; Mehrotra, R., 2024, “Assessing the Perception and Value of Marine Biodiversity and Taxonomy Research by the Recreational Diving Tourism Industry in Thailand”, https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/JUXA7B (accessed on 25 December 2024), Harvard Dataverse, V1.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the Editor and four anonymous reviewers for comments and suggestions that helped improve the quality of our manuscript. We are grateful to the following for permissions and access to species images: Phuket Marine Biological Center for Acropora sirikitiae (Figure 1A), Jenvit Seriburi for Chironepthya sirindhornae (Figure 1B), Thanongsak Chanmethakul for Ovabunda andamanensis (Figure 1D), Somsak Buatip for Costasiella coronata (Figure 1H), and Em Lee for Panderevela hyllebergi (Figure 1J). Finally, both shark species illustrations for which we are also grateful (Figure 1M,N) were made by Lindsay Marshall, Stick Figure Fish Illustration. ©2024, all rights reserved.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
SCUBASelf-contained underwater breathing apparatus
MCSMarine citizen science
OLSOrdinary least square
WTPWillingness to pay

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Figure 1. Images and illustrations of marine fauna recently discovered or described from Thai waters, used in species-specific questions pertaining to diver interest and awareness. (A) Acropora sirikitiae, (B) Chironephthya sirindhornae, (C) Nanipora sp., (D) Ovabunda andamanensis, (E) Tubastraea stimpsonii, (F) Armina occulta, (G) Armina scotti, (H) Costasiella coronata, (I) Elysia aowthai; (J) Panderevela hyllebergi, (K) Phestilla viei, (L) Unidentia aliciae, (M) Carcharhinus obsoletus, and (N) Mustelus andamanensis.
Figure 1. Images and illustrations of marine fauna recently discovered or described from Thai waters, used in species-specific questions pertaining to diver interest and awareness. (A) Acropora sirikitiae, (B) Chironephthya sirindhornae, (C) Nanipora sp., (D) Ovabunda andamanensis, (E) Tubastraea stimpsonii, (F) Armina occulta, (G) Armina scotti, (H) Costasiella coronata, (I) Elysia aowthai; (J) Panderevela hyllebergi, (K) Phestilla viei, (L) Unidentia aliciae, (M) Carcharhinus obsoletus, and (N) Mustelus andamanensis.
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Figure 2. Bar charts showing the distribution of importance levels given to each of the 6 diving objectives (from 0 not important at all to 5 the most important). Percentages may not sum to exactly 100% due to rounding of values.
Figure 2. Bar charts showing the distribution of importance levels given to each of the 6 diving objectives (from 0 not important at all to 5 the most important). Percentages may not sum to exactly 100% due to rounding of values.
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Figure 3. Series of violin plots showing the distribution of respondents’ diving experience (number of logged dives) grouped by stated degree of importance for various incentives: (A) finding rare or cryptic species; (B) finding newly described species; (C) finding big animals; (D) seeing lots of fish; (E) seeing a beautiful reef, shipwreck, or ecosystem; (F) visiting a new dive site or location.
Figure 3. Series of violin plots showing the distribution of respondents’ diving experience (number of logged dives) grouped by stated degree of importance for various incentives: (A) finding rare or cryptic species; (B) finding newly described species; (C) finding big animals; (D) seeing lots of fish; (E) seeing a beautiful reef, shipwreck, or ecosystem; (F) visiting a new dive site or location.
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Figure 4. Series of violin plots showing the distribution of respondents’ diving experience (number of logged dives) grouped by their answers to surveyed questions. (A) Do you actively follow when a new biodiversity record is discovered in Thai waters? (B) Do you actively follow when a new species is discovered in Thai waters? (C) How important is looking for biodiversity (i.e., specific species of animals) to your diving experience? (D) How many dives would you spend looking for one particular new species that you are interested in?
Figure 4. Series of violin plots showing the distribution of respondents’ diving experience (number of logged dives) grouped by their answers to surveyed questions. (A) Do you actively follow when a new biodiversity record is discovered in Thai waters? (B) Do you actively follow when a new species is discovered in Thai waters? (C) How important is looking for biodiversity (i.e., specific species of animals) to your diving experience? (D) How many dives would you spend looking for one particular new species that you are interested in?
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Figure 5. Bar charts showing the awareness and willingness to pay to see each of the 14 species in the wild. (A) Anthozoan corals (Cnidaria: Anthozoa), (B) sea slugs (Gastropoda: Heterobranchia), and (C) sharks.
Figure 5. Bar charts showing the awareness and willingness to pay to see each of the 14 species in the wild. (A) Anthozoan corals (Cnidaria: Anthozoa), (B) sea slugs (Gastropoda: Heterobranchia), and (C) sharks.
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Table 1. Following of news on new biodiversity and new species records in Thai waters.
Table 1. Following of news on new biodiversity and new species records in Thai waters.
Actively Follow When a New Biodiversity Record Is Discovered in Thai Waters% of
Divers		Actively Follow When a New Species is Discovered in Thai Waters% of
Divers
No, I do not follow because I am not interested in new biodiversity records.5.46%No, I do not follow because I am not interested in new species records.3.83%
No, I do not follow but I am interested when hearing about them.58.74%No, I do not follow but I am interested when hearing about them.67.49%
Yes, I actively follow35.79%Yes, I actively follow28.69%
Table 2. Statistical description of number of dives specifically for finding newly recorded biodiversity grouped by the importance level of looking for biodiversity.
Table 2. Statistical description of number of dives specifically for finding newly recorded biodiversity grouped by the importance level of looking for biodiversity.
Importance of Looking for Biodiversity to Your Diving Experiences% of DiversNumber of Dives Performed with a Specific Goal of Finding a Newly Recorded Biodiversity in Thai Waters
MinMeanMaxStd.
Not important at all.1.09%09.204017.41
I like recognizing what I see or learning about it later, but that is about it.16.67%02.977511.74
I will actively spend more of my dive time looking at animals that I have not seen before.67.21%023.85100092.16
I often plan whole dives looking for new/rare species or biodiversity records.14.75%0100.311000206.74
All100%031.131000112.35
Table 3. Estimation of economic gains from species-specific dives.
Table 3. Estimation of economic gains from species-specific dives.
Calculations and ScenariosNumber of Dives That Divers Would Spend Looking for One
Particular New Species of Interest		Total in THB
(USD)
0 Dives1–5 Dives6–10 Dives11–20 Dives>20 Dives
Percentage of divers30.87%29.51%13.93%6.56%19.13%100%
(D) estimated number of divers308729511393656191310,000 *
( d l ) number of dives-lower bracket0161121-
( d m ) number of dives-mid bracket03815.525.5 *-
( d u ) number of dives-upper bracket05102030 *-
Scenario A: low economic value
V A = ∑ ( d l × 1500 ) 		04,426,500
(USD 133,246) 		12,537,000
(USD 377,386) 		10,824,000
(USD 325,822) 		57,390,000
(USD 1,727,543) 		85,177,500
(USD 2,563,996)
Scenario B: mid economic value
V B = ∑ ( d m × 2100 ) 		018,591,300
(USD 559,632) 		14,626,500
(USD 440,284) 		21,352,800
(USD 642,758) 		102,441,150
(USD 3,083,663) 		157,011,750
(USD 4,726,337)
Scenario C: high economic value
V C = ∑ ( d u × 2100 ) 		039,838,500
(USD 1,199,211) 		37,611,000
(USD 1,132,159) 		35,424,000
(USD 1,066,326) 		154,953,000
(USD 4,664,365) 		267,826,500
(USD 8,062,061)
* Assumptions made for the calculation as explained in Section 2.
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Chantavilasvong, W.; Udomcharoenchaikit, P.; Mehrotra, R. Assessing the Perception and Value of Marine Biodiversity and Taxonomy Research by the Recreational Diving Tourism Industry in Thailand. Reg. Sci. Environ. Econ. 2025, 2, 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/rsee2030026

AMA Style

Chantavilasvong W, Udomcharoenchaikit P, Mehrotra R. Assessing the Perception and Value of Marine Biodiversity and Taxonomy Research by the Recreational Diving Tourism Industry in Thailand. Regional Science and Environmental Economics. 2025; 2(3):26. https://doi.org/10.3390/rsee2030026

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chantavilasvong, Wan, Pin Udomcharoenchaikit, and Rahul Mehrotra. 2025. "Assessing the Perception and Value of Marine Biodiversity and Taxonomy Research by the Recreational Diving Tourism Industry in Thailand" Regional Science and Environmental Economics 2, no. 3: 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/rsee2030026

APA Style

Chantavilasvong, W., Udomcharoenchaikit, P., & Mehrotra, R. (2025). Assessing the Perception and Value of Marine Biodiversity and Taxonomy Research by the Recreational Diving Tourism Industry in Thailand. Regional Science and Environmental Economics, 2(3), 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/rsee2030026

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