Examining Resilience, Self-Efficacy and Environmental Chaos Relationship in Early Childhood Education and Care Teachers

Abstract

Teaching in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) is a highly demanding profession, particularly in challenging educational contexts, such as Greece. This study aims to explore teacher resilience and examine its associations with self-efficacy and environmental chaos. Specifically, the study explores the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between teacher resilience and environmental chaos. Two hundred and six ECEC teachers from Greece were recruited via convenience sampling to participate in this study. The measures used were the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), the Efficacy subscale of Teacher Subjective Wellbeing Questionnaire (TSWQ), and the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale (CHAOS-D). The results of descriptive statistics showed that teachers’ levels of resilience were moderate to high. Correlational analyses revealed significant positive relationships between teacher resilience and self-efficacy, as well as significant negative relationships between both resilience and self-efficacy and a chaotic classroom atmosphere. The mediation analysis demonstrated that self-efficacy partially mediated the negative relationship between a chaotic atmosphere and teacher resilience. Taken together, the findings highlight the importance of mitigating environmental stressors and fostering robust self-efficacy beliefs in order to enhance the resilience and overall well-being of ECEC professionals.

1. Introduction

Teaching is widely recognized as one of the most demanding professions, yet many educators exhibit a profound passion and dedication despite its inherent challenges (McCallum, 2021; Vatou & Gkorezis, 2018). In Greece, early childhood education and care (ECEC) teachers frequently navigate challenging work environments characterized by insufficient resources, limited professional support, and significant emotional demands (Vatou et al., 2021). These adversities can profoundly affect their emotional well-being and the overall professional quality of life (Koulierakis et al., 2019). Consequently, fostering and maintaining teacher resilience is paramount. The American Psychological Association (2025) defines resilience as the ability to successfully adapt and recover from stress and adversity. For ECEC teachers, resilience is crucial for sustaining professional engagement, preventing burnout, delivering effective teaching, and maintaining emotional stability within increasingly complex and demanding classroom environments (Bagdžiūnienė et al., 2023).

Research consistently highlights the significance of both psychological and contextual resources in enhancing teacher resilience, particularly within early childhood education settings (Bagdžiūnienė et al., 2023; Krousorati et al., 2022). In this context, resilience is not merely an individual trait but rather a dynamic interplay between personal coping strategies and the surrounding work environment (Mansfield et al., 2016). One critical contextual factor of increasing concern is environmental disorganization and unpredictability, commonly referred to as environmental chaos. Environmental chaos in ECEC settings is a multifaceted concept encompassing structural disorganization and emotional turbulence (Jeon et al., 2016). According to Wachs and Evans (2010), environmental chaos is characterized by high noise levels, overcrowding, disorganized physical spaces and inconsistent routines. In ECEC classrooms, this can manifest as high child-to-teacher ratios, frequent instructional interruptions, cluttered and disorganized learning spaces, and pervasive background noise from children and external sources. In ECEC settings, chaotic conditions have been shown to significantly impair teachers’ emotional regulation, elevating their vulnerability to stress and diminishing their capacity to respond sensitively and effectively to children’s social and emotional needs (Carey & Sutton, 2024; Jeon et al., 2016). Moreover, these conditions limit opportunities for focused interactions, diminish predictability and increase cognitive load for educators and children alike, creating an unstable and tense climate (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Vatou et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023).

Evidence from the Greek ECEC settings further supports these findings (Koulierakis et al., 2019). Emotional exhaustion, a core component of burnout, is notably prevalent among Greek ECEC teachers (Koulierakis et al., 2019; Lemos et al., 2025). Contributing factors include high emotional labor, heavy workloads, and a lack of institutional support and resources (e.g., Vatou et al., 2021). While previous research has emphasized the importance of teacher self-efficacy in mitigating stress and enhancing teaching effectiveness (Hu et al., 2019), fewer studies have explored how these internal resources might mediate the effect of external stressors, such as environmental chaos (Jeon et al., 2016). To address this gap, the present study aims to examine teacher resilience within Greek ECEC settings. More specifically, this study investigates whether perceived environmental chaos is associated with teacher resilience and whether teacher self-efficacy mediates this relationship.

2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

2.1. Teacher Resilience

Resilience, often initially conceptualized as the capacity to “bounce back” from adversity (American Psychological Association, 2025), is increasingly understood as a multifaceted and dynamic construct within contemporary psychological literature (Vallés & Clarà, 2023). Moving beyond a simplistic definition, researchers now view resilience as a complex process of positively adapting in the face of significant life challenges, stress, or trauma (Vella & Pai, 2019). This understanding incorporates various theoretical models. The ecological model of resilience, for example, highlights the interaction between personal attributes and environmental influences. According to this perspective, resilience emerges from the dynamic interactions between an individual and their surroundings (Masten, 2014). Protective resources within the environment (e.g., social support and community resources) can mitigate the effects of risk factors, thereby promoting positive adaptation (Daniilidou & Platsidou, 2018). Furthermore, resilience is often conceptualized as a process-oriented phenomenon, suggesting that it is not a static state, but rather an ongoing journey of coping, learning, and growth following adversity (Beltman et al., 2011). This contrasts with the idea that resilience is a stable, inherent characteristic, as it recognizes that an individual’s capacity for resilience can fluctuate depending on the context and the specific challenges faced (Bagdžiūnienė et al., 2023).

The factors that contribute to teacher resilience can be broadly categorized as either individual or contextual. Individual factors include a variety of personal attributes and coping mechanisms. These include positive personality traits such as optimism, hope and hardiness, which enable teachers to maintain a positive outlook and persevere through difficulties (Wang et al., 2023). Effective coping strategies, whether problem-focused (e.g., actively seeking solutions) or emotion-focused (e.g., managing emotional responses), are vital for navigating daily stressors (Jeon et al., 2016). The capacity for emotional regulation—the ability to manage and express one’s emotions in an adaptive way—is particularly important for teachers, as it allows them to remain composed and effective amidst challenging classroom dynamics (Zhou et al., 2023). Furthermore, mindfulness, which is characterized by present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance, has been identified as a significant contributor to teacher well-being and resilience (Bagdžiūnienė et al., 2023; Jennings, 2015).

Beyond individual attributes, contextual factors play a significant role in fostering teacher resilience. A positive and supportive school culture characterized by collaboration, mutual respect and a shared vision creates an environment in which teachers feel valued and supported (Leithwood & Sun, 2012; Sun et al., 2023). Strong support from colleagues through peer networks and mentorship opportunities provides a sense of belonging and practical assistance (Johnson & Griffin, 2024). Effective leadership support, particularly from administrators who exhibit transformational leadership and provide consistent backing, can greatly increase teachers’ sense of security and efficacy (Hartmann et al., 2020; Peters & Pearce, 2012). Positive parental involvement and home-school partnerships can alleviate teacher stress and reinforce their efforts (Haisraeli & Fogiel-Bijaoui, 2023). Lastly, access to professional development opportunities that focus on well-being, stress management and instructional strategies can provide teachers with the necessary tools to build and maintain resilience (Krousorati et al., 2022; Blewitt et al., 2020; Cadima et al., 2025).

The importance of resilience is particularly pronounced for ECEC teachers. This sector is characterized by high emotional demands, requiring educators to provide constant nurturing, manage challenging behaviors and navigate complex communication with parents (Vatou et al., 2021; Purper et al., 2023). ECEC teachers have the unique responsibility of understanding and responding to the diverse developmental needs of young children, promoting essential social and emotional learning skills, and addressing disruptive behaviors, all of which can be emotionally exhausting (Purper et al., 2023). Effective communication with parents from various backgrounds adds to the emotional labor involved (Haisraeli & Fogiel-Bijaoui, 2023; Buettner et al., 2016). In such demanding environments, resilience acts as a critical buffer against burnout, enabling ECEC teachers to sustain their professional engagement and commitment in the long term (Buettner et al., 2016). Resilient ECEC teachers are better able to provide sensitive and responsive interactions with children, which are fundamental to positive outcomes for children and to the quality of the classroom environment (Blewitt et al., 2020).

2.2. Self-Efficacy in ECEC

Rooted in Bandura’s (1977, 1997) social cognitive theory, self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to organize and execute the necessary actions to manage potential situations. In an educational context, teacher self-efficacy is defined as a teacher’s conviction that they can influence student learning and engagement successfully, even among challenging or unmotivated students (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). This belief is not merely a reflection of skill, but rather a judgment of what one can do with the skills one possesses (Bandura, 1997).

The impact of high self-efficacy on teachers is profound, influencing their motivation, effort, and teaching effectiveness (Bandura, 2023). Teachers with strong self-efficacy beliefs tend to exert greater effort and persistence in the face of challenges, viewing difficulties as opportunities for growth rather than insurmountable obstacles (Chan et al., 2023). This enhanced persistence often translates into improved instructional strategies, more effective classroom management, and greater student engagement (Zee et al., 2024). Furthermore, a strong sense of self-efficacy acts as a buffer against occupational stress and burnout, thereby promoting overall well-being (Hu et al., 2019; Weissenfels et al., 2021). Conversely, teachers with low self-efficacy may be more prone to disengagement, anxiety and reduced professional satisfaction (S. Huang et al., 2019).

ECEC teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs hold particular significance due to the unique demands of their profession. ECEC teachers require high levels of self-efficacy to effectively navigate the complexities of guiding very young children, who are highly dependent and developing rapidly across multiple domains (Blewitt et al., 2020; Vatou et al., 2022). They must foster foundational social and emotional skills, manage diverse behaviors, implement age-appropriate curricula and communicate effectively with parents from varied backgrounds (Blewitt et al., 2020; Haisraeli & Fogiel-Bijaoui, 2023; Purper et al., 2023). High self-efficacy enables ECEC teachers to believe in their ability to positively influence child development, adapt their teaching methods to individual needs and remain calm amidst challenging classroom dynamics, such as frequent transitions, noise and varied developmental stages (Hu et al., 2021; Zee et al., 2024). This strong belief in their capabilities enables ECEC teachers to persist in providing nurturing and stimulating learning environments, even when faced with resource constraints or limited external support (Bandura, 2023).

2.3. Environmental CHAOS in Educational Contexts

While individual and self-regulatory factors like self-efficacy are crucial for teacher well-being, the external environment significantly influences their ability to thrive (Beltman et al., 2011). One critical contextual factor that is receiving increasing attention is environmental disorganization and unpredictability, often referred to as environmental chaos. Originally developed in child development research (Doan & Evans, 2020; Matheny et al., 1995), the concept of environmental chaos has been extended to educational research, in which environmental quality plays an important role in child development and teacher well-being (Byun & Jeon, 2025; Corapci et al., 2023).

Recent research by Byun and Jeon (2025) further describes environmental chaos into two dimensions: chaotic structure and chaotic atmosphere. The former includes physical and procedural disorganization, such as a lack of clear rules or spatial order, while the latter reflects an emotionally dysregulated climate characterized by fussiness, cynicism and emotional volatility. These stressors have profound implications for teacher well-being and functioning. Doan and Evans (2020) emphasize that chronic exposure to unpredictable and unstable environments undermines educators’ emotional regulation and impairs their ability to provide consistent, sensitive care. This, in turn, has an adverse effect on classroom management and compromises the socio-emotional and cognitive development of children.

Environmental chaos includes, but is not limited to, excessive noise levels, visual clutter or poorly structured physical spaces, inconsistent routines and expectations, and frequent interruptions or transitions (Carey & Sutton, 2024; Doan & Evans, 2020). In ECEC settings, environmental chaos can manifest as crowded play areas, unpredictable schedules, high teacher-to-child ratios, or a lack of clear behavioral guidelines (Jeon et al., 2016; Corapci et al., 2023). Teachers working in such environments report increased stress and burnout, diminished emotional regulation capacities and a reduced ability to respond sensitively to children’s needs (Jeon et al., 2016). Teachers in chaotic settings, for example, are more likely to exhibit non-supportive emotional responses and surface acting strategies, contributing to emotional exhaustion and lower job satisfaction (Carey & Sutton, 2024; Wang et al., 2023).

Crucially, environmental chaos has a negative impact on teacher-child interactions, which are fundamental to child development and learning (Byun & Jeon, 2025). When teachers are operating under conditions of high stress and cognitive overload due to environmental chaos, they are less able to engage in sensitive, responsive and warm interactions with children (Jeon et al., 2016). This can manifest as less individualized attention, reduced emotional support, more frequent negative interactions and a greater reliance on reactive rather than proactive classroom management strategies (Corapci, 2010). These strained interactions not only impact teacher well-being but also hinder children’s social-emotional development, academic engagement, and the overall quality of the classroom environment (Coley et al., 2015; Doan & Evans, 2020). The ability of ECEC teachers to foster secure attachments and provide a nurturing environment is compromised by the unpredictability and disorganization of chaotic settings (Grant et al., 2019).

The challenges posed by environmental chaos are amplified in ECEC settings. Young children thrive on predictability, routine and clear boundaries, and their developing brains are highly sensitive to environmental stimuli (Gee & Cohodes, 2021; Selman & Dilworth-Bart, 2024). Consequently, a chaotic ECEC environment can hinder children’s learning, social development, and behavior directly (Byun & Jeon, 2025). For teachers, this means constantly struggling against an environment that inherently works against their pedagogical goals, which can lead to increased feelings of frustration, helplessness and inadequacy (Grant et al., 2019; Park & Ramirez, 2022). The constant demands of managing an unruly or unpredictable classroom, often exacerbated by insufficient resources and high child-to-teacher ratios, increase the risk of professional exhaustion and reduce the quality of care provided (e.g., Cadima et al., 2025).

2.4. The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy

The proposed conceptual framework of this study is based on the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) theory (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). According to this theory, job demands (e.g., time pressure, emotional strain, and environmental disorganization) can lead to burnout and reduced well-being unless they are adequately counterbalanced by personal and professional resources. In the context of ECEC, environmental chaos characterized by high noise levels, disorganization and unpredictable routines represents a significant job demand, creating a psychologically taxing work environment for ECEC teachers (Carey & Sutton, 2024; Doan & Evans, 2020). Constant exposure to disorder can lead to increased stress, cognitive overload and emotional exhaustion, thus undermining teachers’ ability to remain resilient in their daily practice (Li, 2023).

Concurrently, a teacher’s self-efficacy beliefs are profoundly impacted by their experiences within these environments. When ECEC teachers are consistently faced with chaotic conditions—where their attempts at classroom management seem futile, or their efforts to deliver planned instruction are repeatedly disrupted—their sense of professional competence and control can diminish (Grant et al., 2019; Li, 2023; Park & Ramirez, 2022). According to the JD–R model, personal resources such as self-efficacy can moderate or mediate the adverse effects of environmental demands (S. Huang et al., 2019; J. Huang et al., 2016). Specifically, teachers who perceive themselves as competent and effective at managing classroom challenges are more likely to withstand the pressures of chaotic environments and demonstrate resilience (Hu et al., 2021; Zee et al., 2024). Conversely, when environmental chaos erodes self-efficacy, teachers become less confident in their abilities. This reduced confidence, in turn, makes them more vulnerable to the negative impacts of environmental chaos, leading to decreased persistence, heightened stress, and ultimately, diminished resilience (Wang et al., 2023).

Although the importance of environmental demands and personal psychological resources in teacher well-being is increasingly recognized, little research has examined how teacher resilience and self-efficacy are associated with perceptions of environmental chaos, or whether they act as protective factors against it, particularly in Greek ECEC settings. This study aims to address this gap by investigating whether self-efficacy mediates the relationship between resilience and perceived environmental chaos among teachers (Figure 1).

3. The Present Study

The present study aims to reveal the relationship between teachers’ resilience in Greek ECEC settings and environmental chaos, considering the mediating effect of teachers’ self-efficacy.

Alongside Figure 1, the study hypotheses are:

Hypothesis 1 (H1).

Teachers’ resilience will have a negative relationship with environmental chaos.

Hypothesis 2 (H2).

Teachers’ resilience will have a positive relationship with self-efficacy.

Hypothesis 3 (H3).

Higher levels of teacher self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between teacher resilience and perceived environmental chaos.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Participants and Procedure

The sample of the study consisted of 206 ECEC teachers from 69 ECEC settings across three prefectures of Northern Greece (Thessaloniki, Pella, and Halkidiki) who were selected randomly to participate in the survey. Participants’ age ranged from 21 to 60 (M_age = 38.0, SD_age = 10.31). Educators’ teaching experience ranged from 1 to 35 years. Of the participants, 97.6% were female and only 2.4% were male. One teacher did not report his/her gender. The strong presence of female teachers in early childhood education is a widely recognized phenomenon in Europe (Eurostat, 2025). The socio-demographic data were collected to describe the context of the sample and to assess potential covariates, even though these variables were not ultimately included in the tested models.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the sample.

Background Variables		N = 206
Gender	%female	97.6%
	%male	2.4%
Age	Mean age (in years) (SD)	38.0 (10.31)
	Range age	21 to 60
Teaching Experience	Mean experience (in years) (SD)	10.4 (8.61)
	Range experience	1 to 35
Education Level	% Technological Educational Institute Degree	39.3%
	% Bachelor Degree	49.5%
	% Master’s Degree	10.7%
	% Doctoral Degree	0.5%

presents the participants’ demographic characteristics.

The study received approval from the Ethics Advisory Board of the author’s department and adhered to all ethical guidelines. The researcher informed teachers about their participation in the research implementation procedures, ensuring their anonymity and data discretion and confidentiality. Participants provided informed consent prior to participation. The questionnaire was emailed directly to ECEC teachers. Teachers responded to the questionnaire voluntarily without any personal incentives and they had the option to withdraw their consent at any given point.

4.2. Measures

4.2.1. Teacher Resilience

The 10-item Greek version of the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) was used to estimate Greek ECEC teachers’ resilience (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007; Tsigkaropoulou et al., 2018). An example of an item is “Able to adapt to change”. Participants responded to a five-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (Not true at all) to 4 (True nearly all the time). CFA of the scale yielded satisfactory goodness of fit statistics (χ² (df) = 58.8 (34), p < 0.05; CFI = 0.968; RMSEA = 0.059; SRMR = 0.037). In this study, the omega’s ω coefficient was 0.886.

4.2.2. Teacher Self-Efficacy

Greek teachers’ self-efficacy was assessed using the Greek version of the Teacher Subjective Wellbeing Questionnaire (TSWQ; Michael et al., 2025), which comprises two subscales: teaching efficacy and school connectedness (Renshaw et al., 2015). Teaching efficacy reflects teachers’ perceptions of their professional effectiveness (e.g., “I feel like my teaching is effective and helpful”), while school connectedness captures their sense of belonging within the school environment (e.g., “I feel like people at this school care about me”). For the purposes of this study, only the four items related to teaching efficacy were utilized. Participants responded on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). In this study, the subscale’s reliability, measured using McDonald’s omega coefficient, was 0.847.

4.2.3. Environmental CHAOS

To assess the level of environmental chaos in ECEC settings, the modified version of the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale (CHAOS-D), which was initially developed by Wachs et al. (2004), was used. This scale is an adaptation of the original CHAOS scale (Matheny et al., 1995), which has been widely used in parenting studies. The CHAOS-D scale consists of 16 items, related to various aspects of classroom chaos, including environmental confusion, crowding, noise levels, and the organization and control of time and space. Examples of these items include statements such as “We almost always seem to be rushed” and “There is very little commotion in our classroom setting”. While the original CHAOS-D used a true/false format, this study employed a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Definitely untrue, 5 = Definitely true), a format that has been previously validated in educational research (e.g., Byun & Jeon, 2025; Jeon et al., 2016).

The CHAOS-D scale was translated into Greek, using the back-translation method. First, the author translated the scale into Greek, and then, a native speaker conducted a back-translation into English. Afterwards, the two versions were compared, and translation discrepancies were corrected. Following this procedure, the questionnaire was pretested with ten teachers, and minor changes were introduced based on teachers’ feedback.

Following the work of Byun and Jeon (2025), who considered the CHAOS-D scale as a multidimensional construct, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to identify the underlying factors. Assumption checks confirmed that the data were suitable for factor analysis. Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant (χ²(91) = 935, p < 0.001) and the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.807. After careful consideration of the eigenvalues, the scree plot and the factor loadings, it was concluded that a two-factor model was the most suitable (

Table 2. Factor analysis results of CHAOS-D.

CHAOS-D Items	Factor Loadings
	Factor 1 Chaotic Structure	Factor 2 Chaotic Atmosphere
chaos_5	0.814
chaos_8	0.750
chaos_4	0.714
chaos_7	0.690
chaos_10	0.637
chaos_2	0.568
chaos_14	0.516
chaos_16	0.490
chaos_13R		0.827
chaos_11R		0.694
chaos_3R		0.381
chaos_1R		0.349
chaos_9R		0.334
Eigenvalues	3.59	1.21

Note. Factor loadings below 0.30 are not presented. Items that were reverse-coded are indicated with an R.

). These two factors captured different aspects of classroom chaos: chaotic structure (Factor 1), referring to a disorganized and frequently interrupted classroom environment, and chaotic atmosphere (Factor 2), reflecting a noisy and fussy classroom environment.

Based on these findings, two subscales were created, with the mean item scores within each subscale used as composite scores. Both the Chaotic Structure and Chaotic Atmosphere subscales demonstrated good internal consistency, with McDonald’s omega coefficient of 0.856 and 0.701, respectively, indicating reliability.

4.3. Statistical Analysis

Data analyses were conducted using the JAMOVI (ver. 2.6.2) to examine the study’s aims. Descriptive statistics, correlation coefficients and reliability analysis of the study measures were estimated to assess the distribution, central tendency, and the interrelationships of the study variables. Additionally, a Structural Equation Model (SEM) was used to estimate the proposed model. SEM was used to examine the direct paths [Teacher Resilience -> Self-Efficacy (H1) & Teacher Resilience -> Environmental Chaos (H2)] and the indirect paths [Teacher Resilience -> Self-Efficacy -> Environmental Chaos (H3)]. The hypothesised measurement model was evaluated through a combination of goodness-of-fit indices. As the χ² statistic is highly influenced by the sample size, emphasis was placed on the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The following values of the fit indices were considered acceptable: the CFI with a value ≥ 0.90, and the RMSEA and the SRMR with critical values from ≤0.06 to ≤0.08 (Kline, 2023).

5. Results

Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations of the study variables are presented in

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and correlations.

	M (SD)	Min.	Max.	1	2	3
1. Teacher resilience	3.00 (0.62)	1.20	4	-
2. Self-efficacy	3.09 (0.48)	1	4	0.249 **	-
3. Chaotic structure	2.10 (0.73)	1	5	−0.100	−0.160 *	-
4. Chaotic atmosphere	2.31 (0.60)	1	4.20	−0.349 **	−0.270 **	0.253 *

Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.001.

. The results showed high levels of teacher resilience, suggesting that participants feel confident in their capacity to cope and recover from adversity.

The results revealed that the intercorrelations between the study variables are statistically significant: positive correlation was received for the relationship between teacher resilience and self-efficacy (r = 0.249, p < 0.001), and negative correlations for the relationships between teacher resilience and chaotic atmosphere (r = −0.349, p < 0.001) and self-efficacy and chaotic atmosphere (r = −0.237, p < 0.001), suggesting that as personal resources such as resilience and self-efficacy increase, a chaotic atmosphere tends to decrease.

Following, a structural equation model was estimated to test the hypothesized relationships between the study variables. An initial SEM analysis included teacher age and years of teaching experience as covariates to examine their potential influence on self-efficacy and environmental chaos. The results indicated that neither covariate had a statistically significant effect on the mediator or outcome. Specifically, age was not significantly associated with self-efficacy (β = −0.046, p = 0.689) or environmental chaos (β = −0.040, p = 0.709). Similarly, years of experience showed no significant effects on self-efficacy (β = 0.054, p = 0.636) or environmental chaos (β = 0.112, p = 0.300). Indirect effects through self-efficacy were also non-significant for both age (β = 0.009, p = 0.691) and experience (β = −0.011, p = 0.640). Given the lack of statistically significant contributions and to maintain model parsimony, these socio-demographic covariates were excluded from the final model.

Furthermore, in the absence of a significant direct association between teacher resilience and chaotic structure (r = −0.100, p > 0.05), only one mediation model was tested: the pathway from teacher resilience to self-efficacy to chaotic atmosphere. To validate the structure of the proposed model and to assess the quality of the latent constructs, a full CFA was conducted using the DWLS estimation method appropriate for ordinal data. The results indicated a good fit (χ² = 225, df = 149, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.945, RMSEA = 0.049, SRMR = 0.049). All factor loadings were statistically significant (p < 0.001) and above 0.30, indicating strong convergent validity across constructs.

To test whether self-efficacy mediates the relationship between teacher resilience and chaotic atmosphere, a structural equation model was conducted, using a bootstrapping mediation analysis with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The indirect effect of teacher resilience on chaotic atmosphere through self-efficacy was statistically significant, β = −0.05, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [−0.09, −0.01], z = −2.01, p < 0.050, supporting Hypothesis 3. The direct effect of teacher resilience on chaotic atmosphere remained significant, β = −0.30, SE = 0.07, 95% CI [−0.42, −0.15], z = −4.11, p < 0.001, indicating partial mediation. The total effect of teacher resilience on chaotic atmosphere was also significant, β = −0.34, SE = 0.06, 95% CI [−0.46, −0.21], z = −5.31, p < 0.001. The results of the mediation analysis are presented in

Table 4. Results of mediation analysis.

						95% CI
Effect	Path		B	β	SE	Lower	Upper	z	p	R2
Indirect α × b	Teacher Resilience -> Self-efficacy -> Chaotic atmosphere		−0.04	−0.05	0.02	−0.09	−0.01	−2.01	<0.050
Direct c	Teacher Resilience -> Chaotic atmosphere		−0.29	−0.30	0.07	−0.42	−0.15	−4.11	<0.001
Total c’ + (α × b)	Teacher Resilience -> Chaotic atmosphere		−0.33	−0.34	0.06	−0.46	−0.21	−5.31	<0.001	0.167

Note: B = unstandardized coefficient; β = standardized coefficient; SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval.

.

6. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between teachers’ resilience in Greek ECEC settings and environmental chaos, considering the mediating effect of teachers’ self-efficacy. Furthermore, this study is one of the first to attempt to explore the multidimensional nature of environmental chaos (e.g., chaotic structure and atmosphere). The findings of this study supported all three research hypotheses.

The results of descriptive statistics revealed that the participating ECEC teachers exhibited moderate to high levels of resilience, indicating a strong perceived capacity to cope with and recover from adversity. This observation resonates strongly with a growing body of literature that acknowledges the adaptive capabilities of teachers, particularly those working in demanding environments where daily challenges are commonplace (Bagdžiūnienė et al., 2023; Vella & Pai, 2019). This intrinsic ability to “bounce back” highlights a critical internal resource possessed by many teachers, enabling them to sustain their professional engagement despite significant stressors (American Psychological Association, 2025; Vallés & Clarà, 2023).

In line with the study’s hypotheses, teacher resilience was positively correlated with self-efficacy and was found to have a significant direct relationship with resilience in the structural equation modelling (SEM). This finding is highly consistent with prominent theoretical perspectives such as Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory, which posits self-efficacy as a vital personal resource that enables individuals to adapt and persevere in the face of challenges (Bandura, 2023). It seems that teachers who feel competent and effective are better equipped to navigate professional difficulties and maintain their composure (e.g., Chan et al., 2023; Hu et al., 2021).

On the other hand, both teacher resilience and self-efficacy were found to have negative links with a chaotic atmosphere, as well as a significant negative direct relationship with it in SEM. These patterns suggest that an increase in the perception of environmental chaos within the classroom atmosphere is associated with a decrease in teacher resilience and self-efficacy. This highlights the detrimental effect of environmental stressors on teachers’ overall well-being and confidence in their professional roles (Carey & Sutton, 2024). The dynamic and unpredictable nature of a chaotic atmosphere appears to be particularly taxing, undermining the very resources that teachers rely on to remain effective and adaptable.

Interestingly, the correlation between teacher resilience and ‘chaotic structure’—referring to static physical disorganization—was not statistically significant (e.g., Byun & Jeon, 2025). The non-significant correlation between chaotic structure and resilience, in contrast to the strong association with chaotic atmosphere, further implies that the dynamic and sensory aspects of environmental chaos are more salient to teachers’ perceived resilience and self-efficacy than static physical arrangements (Byun & Jeon, 2025; Corapci, 2010; Corapci et al., 2023). This nuanced understanding highlights that interventions focusing solely on physical organization might be less effective than those addressing the lived experience atmosphere of environmental chaos.

When it comes to examining the role of self-efficacy as a mediator, the results revealed a partial mediation in the relationship between teacher resilience and chaotic atmosphere. Although the indirect effect was statistically significant, it was relatively modest, suggesting that self-efficacy is just one mechanism through which resilience operates. This finding is consistent with previous studies indicating that teacher performance is influenced by an intricate interplay of personal and contextual factors (Mansfield et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2023). For instance, Mansfield et al. (2016) emphasize that resilience is a dynamic, context-sensitive process influenced by various protective and risk factors. Meanwhile, Wang et al. (2023) emphasize that emotional regulation strategies, job demands and well-being resources collectively influence teachers’ responses to stress. Therefore, while self-efficacy plays a significant role, it should be considered within the context of broader psychological and environmental influences.

ECEC teachers frequently navigate highly chaotic classroom atmospheres characterized by pervasive noise, unpredictability and frequent disruptions; their day-to-day experiences may consistently challenge their sense of professional competence. The repeated perceived difficulties in managing such environments or in achieving instructional goals can erode their mastery experiences, a fundamental source of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Consequently, this diminishes their self-efficacy regarding classroom management and instructional effectiveness (Li, 2023). This reduction in self-efficacy renders teachers more vulnerable to the negative consequences of environmental chaos. A weakened belief in one’s capabilities can impair adaptive coping strategies and reduce persistence in the face of adversity, ultimately leading to lower resilience (Hu et al., 2019). When teachers doubt their ability to maintain order or instruct effectively, their capacity to ‘bounce back’ from professional setbacks is compromised (Bandura, 2023). Therefore, environmental chaos negatively influences teacher resilience not only directly, but also through the erosion of teachers’ beliefs in their own professional capabilities.

Limitations and Future Directions

Several limitations of the current study need to be considered. First, the cross-sectional design precludes the establishment of causal relationships between the variables, especially with regard to the directionality between environmental chaos and teacher self-efficacy. Although the mediation model is theoretically based on the Job Demands–Resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) and Bandura’s (1997) theory of self-efficacy, the observed associations should be interpreted with caution. It is also important to acknowledge that teachers’ perceptions of environmental chaos may be influenced by contextual and structural factors beyond their control, such as classroom size, staffing ratios, institutional routines or broader socio-economic constraints. Further research employing longitudinal or mixed-methods designs is needed to better understand the dynamic and potentially reciprocal relationships between environmental conditions, self-efficacy and resilience in early childhood education settings. Second, relying on self-report measures for all variables introduces the potential for common method bias. Future research could incorporate observational measures of environmental chaos or independent assessments of teacher behaviors to mitigate this issue. Also, qualitative research could provide a richer, more in-depth understanding of the lived experiences of teachers in chaotic situations and how they cope. Third, the study was conducted within the Greek ECEC context. While this provides unique insights, the generalizability of these findings to other cultural or educational settings may be limited. Finally, the specific dimensions of environmental chaos (atmosphere versus structure) warrant further investigation, as their differential impact on teacher well-being may reveal additional nuances.

7. Implications

The findings have important implications for enhancing the quality of early childhood education environments and supporting the well-being and professional commitment of ECEC teachers, particularly in Greece, where they face significant challenges (Vatou et al., 2021). First, intervention designs should focus on reducing the perceived environmental chaos in ECEC classrooms. This could involve implementing noise reduction strategies, establishing consistent routines, setting clear behavioral expectations for children and managing transitions effectively. Second, given the mediating role of self-efficacy, efforts to enhance teacher resilience may explicitly target strengthening teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. Professional development programs could provide ECEC teachers with practical strategies for managing challenging behaviors, organizing the classroom effectively in dynamic environments and fostering positive teacher–child interactions. Professional development programs in behavior management and emotional regulation can empower teachers to remain composed and consistent in challenging situations. These measures enhance classroom functioning and acknowledge the lived experience of teachers. These programs should aim to create opportunities for mastery experiences, allowing teachers to build confidence through the successful application of new skills. Mentorship and peer support systems could also provide valuable vicarious experiences and social persuasion, further enhancing self-efficacy (Johnson & Griffin, 2024). By addressing environmental chaos and cultivating self-efficacy simultaneously, ECEC settings can foster teacher resilience more effectively, ultimately leading to improved educational outcomes for young children.

8. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study investigated the relationships of teachers’ resilience in Greek ECEC settings and environmental chaos, considering the mediating effect of teachers’ self-efficacy. The findings support a model in which higher levels of teacher resilience are associated with lower perceptions of environmental chaos, with self-efficacy acting as a partial mediator of this relationship. These results are consistent with theoretical frameworks that propose resilient teachers are better able to manage challenging classroom environments, maintain a sense of control and competence, and perceive their surroundings as less chaotic. However, while the indirect effect of resilience on perceived chaos through self-efficacy was statistically significant, it was relatively modest. This indicates that self-efficacy is just one of several pathways through which resilience influences teachers’ experiences of their work environment. This study contributes to the growing body of literature on teacher functioning by emphasizing the significance of psychological resources in shaping how teachers interpret and respond to environmental stressors.