Digital Drama-Based Interventions in Emergency Remote Teaching: Enhancing Bilingual Literacy and Psychosocial Support During Polycrisis

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated an urgent shift to emergency remote learning, significantly affecting the education of bilingual students. This study examines the use of technology-enhanced drama-based methods, specifically digital Readers Theater, as an emergency measure to enhance reading literacy and psychosocial support during the pandemic amid multiple concurrent crises. Using an action research approach, 37 Greek teachers implemented remote literacy activities involving digital drama in their virtual classrooms over a period of four weeks. Data were collected from semi-structured interviews, teachers’ reflective journals, and student participation and were analyzed through Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior. The findings indicate that, despite technological challenges and adaptation difficulties, the creative use of digital drama activities contributed to improvements in students’ reading skills, motivation, and engagement. The intervention also fostered students’ emotional expression and social connection, contributing to their psychosocial support during the disruption. This study highlights the dual role of technology as both an enabler and a barrier, emphasizing the need for better digital infrastructure and comprehensive teacher training for effective emergency response. The results stress the value of technology-supported, arts-based approaches in maintaining student engagement and promoting bilingual literacy in crisis contexts. These findings provide useful guidance for teachers and school leaders on how to support students’ learning and well-being, both during crises and in everyday practice.

1. Introduction

The SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic changed the provision of educational services in many countries worldwide in various significant ways (Reimer et al., 2021), due to its health impacts and the restrictions on travel and social interactions (Kuhfeld et al., 2020). This period was characterized not only by the pandemic itself but also by the concurrence of other crises (Karalis, 2020; Uekusa & Matthewman, 2023; Viner et al., 2020), such as environmental disasters and socio-economic instability, resulting in what Morin (Morin, 1999) defines as a “polycrisis”. Polycrisis is a situation where multiple, interconnected crises overlap and interact, producing effects more complex than the sum of each crisis alone. In such contexts, education systems must address the challenges that arise not from a single disruptive event but from the compounding and mutually reinforcing nature of several crises. In response, both teachers and parents tried to find effective ways to continue the education process through remote learning (Daniel, 2020).

During the 2019–2020 academic year, in-person instruction was officially suspended, and since then, most schools have adopted some form of distance education, typically through Emergency Remote Teaching during school closures (Dhawan, 2020). Specifically, the Greek Ministry of Education made three forms of distance learning available to the educational community: Synchronous Learning, Asynchronous Learning, and Educational Television (Kostas et al., 2023). From time to time, of course, and when conditions permitted, schools reopened for in-person instruction, with adherence to health protocols and increased protective measures (e.g., use of masks, decontamination, etc.).

Looking at the overall management of the pandemic in education over time, schools have operated in a hybrid way, combining both face-to-face and distance learning, based on policy decisions regarding pandemic management. Emergency Remote Teaching emerged both as a concept and a policy response during these circumstances, providing a means to ensure the continuation of educational services and address crisis management needs during these difficult times (Ahmed & Opoku, 2022; Khlaif et al., 2021; Morgan et al., 2021).

The long-term financial and social repercussions of school closures and distance learning are expected to be significant, directly affecting both immediate and future educational experiences (Kyriakidis et al., 2024; Spiteri et al., 2023; Sucena et al., 2022). Research suggests that distance learning has highlighted social inequalities in learning, due to differences in children’s opportunities to learn at home, family support at school, or access to the necessary technological equipment, the internet, and resources (Abuhammad, 2020; Dong et al., 2020; Girard & Prado, 2022; Vlachava, 2022). In the context of a polycrisis, promoting effective bilingual literacy becomes even more crucial, as it can strengthen communities’ ability to navigate multiple concurrent crises by improving communication and mutual understanding (O’Brien & Federici, 2019). Although Emergency Remote Teaching has shown potential, its effectiveness in meeting broader educational objectives, particularly in developing bilingual learners’ language skills, remains uncertain—especially in the unique challenges posed by a polycrisis (Hammerstein et al., 2021).

Although empirical evidence specifically describing the impact of the suspension of face-to-face schooling on the development of bilingual students’ interlanguage skills remains scarce, it is possible to infer a negative impact (Alhaider, 2023; Sun et al., 2023). In addition, academic research has shown that the closures triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic and other disasters have resulted in notable short-term learning deficits, especially in basic skills such as reading and writing (Baş et al., 2023; Beach et al., 2021; Beach & Washburn, 2023; Cruz et al., 2022; Hammerstein et al., 2021; Tuncer & Karataş, 2022). At the same time, these closures have limited personal aspirations, particularly for students facing academic difficulties and those with low school performance (Jamshidifarsani et al., 2019; Webster et al., 2022).

The integration of technology in learning can be instrumental in supporting bilingual literacy, particularly during crises (Dumitru, 2025; Xue & Crompton, 2024; Yu, 2022). Digital platforms and tools offer opportunities in terms of educational access, providing bilingual students with the essential resources to continue their education. However, those engaged in remote learning may encounter challenges related to interaction, as technological constraints can change the way students communicate and collaborate (Yang, 2020).

This study aims to explore the experiences of teachers who have implemented a distance learning program characterized by drama-based instruction to enhance students’ reading skills in a period of emergency. We seek to demonstrate the effectiveness of this approach in teaching reading to migrant students while examining how these students responded and benefited from the digital drama activities that were applied in their language learning. Additionally, this study investigates the role of bilingual literacy in strengthening community flexibility by promoting communication among students during polycrisis.

2. Emergency Remote Response During Polycrisis

During the closure of schools, remote teaching emerged as one of the primary solutions to the restrictions caused by the pandemic. It was considered to be a practical, temporary adjustment until the crisis came to an end, with a focus on using technological tools to support the existing educational system remotely, rather than creating an entirely new one (Tzavara & Koufopoulos, 2021). However, this action was not only a reaction to the pandemic but also a necessary adjustment to a broader context of polycrisis, where multiple crises coexisted and affected education (Hirsu et al., 2020; O’Brien & Federici, 2019; Uekusa & Matthewman, 2023).

As schools adapted to these sudden crises, it became clear that although distance learning was not a new phenomenon, it was very different when used during the pandemic (Mastrothanasis, 2023). Emergency distance learning is implemented suddenly, without prior planning most of the times, and relies on online environments either partially or entirely due to the characteristics of each crisis. It employs a range of synchronous and/or asynchronous e-learning tools to address the limitations in social interactions (Jimoyiannis et al., 2021; Jimoyiannis & Koukis, 2023). This approach helps in sustaining educational continuity despite the disruptions that occurred, demonstrating the flexibility and adaptability of educational systems (Naidu, 2021).

Distance learning is usually planned in advance, with structured courses designed. Emergency distance learning, on the other hand, happens in response to unexpected disruptions. It requires quick adjustments and fast implementation (Jimoyiannis & Koukis, 2023). In the context of polycrisis, the use of technology in remote learning not only served as an immediate solution but also revealed new possibilities for long-term improvements in educational settings. Digital platforms and tools were essential in assisting with educational access, promoting bilingual literacy, and ensuring learning continuity during crises (Xue & Crompton, 2024). During this period, it became evident that upgrading digital platforms and enhancing digital skills among both educators and students would be key to preparing more effectively for any future crises.

However, digital reading environments can also impact second language (L2) reading development in complex ways, sometimes hindering deep comprehension and learner autonomy when the cognitive load is high or the scaffolding is limited (Graham et al., 2023; Mastrothanasis, 2023; Sun et al., 2023). These dynamics deserve closer attention in crisis settings, where digital formats often replace in-person instruction.

3. Emergency Remote Response for Reading Skills Development During Crisis Periods

During periods of school closures, students’ skills tend to drop. This phenomenon (also known as “summer learning loss” or “summer slide”) suggests that students can lose vast amounts of knowledge during long breaks (Lawrence, 2012; McEachin & Atteberry, 2017).

A report by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) shows that students may experience a skill loss of approximately 10% of a standard deviation over summer breaks (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2020). Students with lower socio-economic backgrounds or those facing significant school difficulties are more susceptible to this (Puchner et al., 2018). These findings point to the importance of sustaining education during crises. These findings show how important it is to keep education ongoing during crises, which has raised concerns about fairness in education, the quality of online teaching, and potential learning difficulties or gaps from prolonged school closures (Panagouli et al., 2021).

The transition to online learning during the pandemic encountered difficulties, particularly for reading and language instruction (Shaul et al., 2024; Sucena et al., 2022; Sun et al., 2023). Despite the presence of established distance learning models, the sudden transition exposed various limitations and shortcomings, particularly in relation to reading skills. Research on the pandemic’s impact on reading performance is limited, focusing mainly on first language reading skills and school characteristics influencing learning loss (Betthäuser et al., 2023; Cruz et al., 2022; Förster et al., 2023; Kuhfeld et al., 2023; Relyea et al., 2023). Furthermore, the area of developing reading skills in a second language remains significantly underdeveloped, with a lack of identified studies focusing on this aspect (Mastrothanasis & Kladaki, 2025; Sun et al., 2023).

Studies indicate significant reading skill declines among students during the pandemic. For instance, Carlotta-Baschenis and colleagues (Carlotta Baschenis et al., 2021) found that dyslexic students (average age of 10.64 years) in Italy did not achieve expected improvements in reading speed and accuracy due to school closures. The study by Kuhfeld and colleagues (Kuhfeld et al., 2020) predicted reduced learning gains in reading for U.S. students (8–14-year-olds), particularly for those from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Schult and colleagues (Schult et al., 2022) in Germany reported similar findings, emphasizing the role of certain school characteristics, such as average socio-political capital and the proportion of students with a migrant background, in learning loss.

While these studies focus on first language reading skills, the impact on second language acquisition remains underexplored (Sun et al., 2023). Additionally, there is a lack of research on how alternative pedagogical approaches, such as drama-based reading instruction, were perceived and implemented by teachers during the pandemic. Drama-based interventions have shown effectiveness in improving learning, skills, mental health, and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic and post-pandemic period (Folostina et al., 2015; Giotaki & Lenakakis, 2016; Hatton, 2024; Jiang et al., 2023; Mastrothanasis, 2023; Mastrothanasis et al., 2025; Tam, 2020). These interventions offer a multi-sensory learning experience that engages students emotionally and cognitively, which is important during crises when traditional learning methods might fail (Egwemi & Salifu, 2023; Marschall, 2018; Seubert, 2022; Turner-King & Smith, 2024). The integration of technology has enriched digital drama and interactive tools, enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes (Cziboly & Bethlenfalvy, 2020; Mastrothanasis et al., 2024; Mastrothanasis et al., 2023b). Cultural interventions and art-based approaches can provide an emergency response form of emotional and psychological support encouraging a sense of community and collaboration among students (Folostina et al., 2015; Hatton, 2024; Hirsu et al., 2020; Mastrothanasis & Kladaki, 2020; Papakosta et al., 2020), thereby helping communities recover and build resilience. This is important in the fragment context of a polycrisis or a disaster (Davis & Phillips, 2020; Hirsu et al., 2020; Paris et al., 2023).

However, empirical data on the specific impact of drama-based reading instruction on bilingual students’ reading skills during periods of polycrisis are limited. Most existing studies have not addressed how such motivating approaches can be systematically integrated into emergency remote response and teaching to support bilingual literacy (Xue & Crompton, 2024). This gap in the literature shows the need for more research on how effective drama-based interventions are in different educational settings and during various crises. Understanding the role of these interventions in emergency remote response is critical for developing educational practices that can address the difficulties posed by polycrisis.

Moreover, this study seeks to contribute to current theoretical conversations surrounding emotional literacy and multisensory pedagogical practices in times of crisis. While digital drama-based methods have been explored primarily for their motivational value, their role as emotionally resonant, multisensory interventions remains under-investigated, especially in the context of bilingual education during overlapping emergencies. Our work aims to bridge this gap by integrating emotional and sensory engagement with critical literacy aims through digital theater pedagogies.

4. Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

The purpose of this study is to explore the perspectives of teachers who implemented a specific distance intervention program during the COVID-19 pandemic, as an emergency remote response aimed at developing students’ reading literacy skills through drama-based instruction during periods when schools suspended face-to-face operations. While this research was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, its implications extend well beyond that specific period. The lessons learned regarding remote, drama-based literacy interventions are relevant for any future disruptions to conventional schooling, whether due to natural disasters, socio-political unrest, or other crises that require adaptive educational responses. This study is set within the context of polycrisis, where the COVID-19 health crisis intersects with economic downturns, environmental disasters, and socio-political instability, exacerbating the overall impact and complicating response mechanisms.

This research is conducted within the framework of Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior has been widely used to interpret and evaluate teachers’ beliefs about the adoption and use of technological tools. According to Ajzen’s framework, beliefs can be categorized into three main types: behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs. Behavioral beliefs link a particular behavior to a particular outcome, normative beliefs are endorsed by a particular social group to which the individual belongs, and control beliefs reflect an individual’s assessment of the feasibility or practicality of pursuing a goal (Hagger & Hamilton, 2024).

Through the aforementioned purpose, our aim was to highlight the effectiveness of the emergency remote application of drama-based methodologies (Mastrothanasis et al., 2023a; Zhang, 2021) in the teaching of reading to immigrant student populations and to explore how students with such characteristics benefited from digital applied drama activities in their education. Additionally, this study explores how students with these characteristics benefited from digital applied drama activities during emergency remote teaching. Furthermore, this study aims to understand the role of these creative methodologies in enhancing bilingual literacy and resilience in the context of polycrisis. The following are the research questions raised and addressed in this research:

• What behavioral beliefs emerge from emergency remote response in reading literacy using drama-based methods during periods of polycrisis?
• What normative beliefs emerge from emergency remote response instruction using drama- and theater-based methods in a polycrisis context?
• What control beliefs emerge from emergency remote response instruction using drama-based methods amid multiple concurrent crises?

5. Materials and Methods

Among the existing qualitative research approaches, action research methodology was chosen to address the research questions posed. This method was chosen due to its ability to involve participants in an ongoing sequence of planning, action, observation, and reflection. This approach helps examine various aspects related to emergency response and complex crisis situations (Meyer et al., 2018).

Teachers from several primary schools across Greece implemented literacy and language engagement activities in Modern Greek as the target language. Using online conferencing tools in their digital classrooms for over four weeks, they introduced drama-based activities. The goal of these activities was to support students’ bilingual literacy development. Teachers followed a set of guidelines for delivering drama-based instruction, which included regular monitoring and feedback sessions led by the supervising researchers. Before implementing the intervention, participating teachers were invited to become familiar with the basics of emergency online teaching and the digital application of dramatic methods. This was necessary due to the generally limited experience teachers had with using online education as a teaching tool, often considered insufficient for the successful application of innovative pedagogical approaches. At the same time, the need for swift and flexible adaptation to the demands of the crisis required brief but meaningful training, focusing on practical techniques that supported the use of storytelling and dramatized activities in the digital environment. As outlined in the intervention protocol, teachers carried out a series of digital activities using the Readers Theater approach, dedicating thirty minutes each day to reading sessions (Mastrothanasis, 2023). These sessions were facilitated via the Webex meeting platform and overseen by the research team.

Readers Theater is a form of dramatic presentation in which participants read from a script and use vocal expression to help the audience understand the story, without the use of elaborate sets, costumes, or extensive movement (Hautala et al., 2024; Mastrothanasis et al., 2023a). In general, the teacher responsible for implementing the digital version of Readers Theater also took on the role of director for a weekly theater performance. At the beginning of the week, he/she distributes short drama scripts and assigns roles to the pupils. Throughout the week, the teacher guides and gives feedback (through dramaturgy) to his/her students, who work individually or in groups, to ensure that their performance is satisfactory while facilitating the emergence of theatricality in the text through dialogue, action, plot, situations, and spatio-temporal character portrayal. Through rehearsals and participatory group exercises, the students practiced delivering the content of the dialogues, and at the end of the week, they presented the text to an audience in a theatrical analogue form. The limited familiarity of teachers with storytelling and dramatized activities emerged as a factor requiring further adjustment in their teaching practices. However, the application of these methods through online education enhanced their creativity and flexibility, contributing to a stronger teaching approach and increased student engagement. Given the polycrisis context, the integration of drama-based methodologies into the emergency remote response aimed not only to maintain educational continuity but also to address the psychological and emotional needs of students (Hirsu et al., 2020). These needs were exacerbated by the concurrent crises. These activities aimed to build a flexible educational framework, helping students develop skills and receive support to handle such complexities.

5.1. Participants

The study involved thirty-seven primary school teachers from grades four, five, or six, who applied the Readers Theater method in their online classrooms, each working with a bilingual student group of the same size. These teachers had teaching experience ranging from 8 to 28 years, and the students were from migrant backgrounds, which made them more vulnerable to educational interruptions during the crises (Sun et al., 2023).

Those specific cases for qualitative analysis were purposively and partly randomly selected from a larger list of teachers and students who participated in a Greek nationwide research and educational program on drama pedagogy during the academic year 2020–2021. The COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on this period, necessitating considerable changes to adapt to restrictions and the move to online learning. The program was conducted through the Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning Center of the University of the Aegean, and its activities were adapted to these new challenges.

To ensure a homogeneous sample for the qualitative analysis, the selection criteria focused on teachers who had at least one emergent bilingual student in their class. An emergent bilingual student was defined as one who used at least one additional language code for essential communicative functions or was a member of a linguistic minority (Graham et al., 2023). The goal was to include participants who were in particular at-risk positions and faced significant challenges due to the polycrisis context. Additionally, the teachers involved had limited experience with digital storytelling methods and dramatic interventions, which required rapid adaptation to these new techniques. This initiative was designed not only to enhance students’ reading skills but also to strengthen the teachers’ supporting their transition to innovative teaching methods during crises.

5.2. Qualitative Data Collection Methods

For the purposes of our study, it was planned to use in-depth semi-structured interviews with teachers and students who participated in the study, as well as the completion of reflective diaries during the teaching and implementation of the drama pedagogical interventions by the participating teachers, in order to focus on the teachers’ lived experiences and perceptions.

Two interview guides were developed. One was designed for the participating students and the other for their teachers. The first guide consisted of 28 questions and focused on the students’ self-perceptions of the linguistic, cognitive, learning, and psychosocial effects of the distance implementation of Reader’s Theatre at both the individual and classroom levels (e.g., “How did participating in the digital theater activities affect your interest in reading?”, “Did you feel more confident reading in Greek after these sessions?”).

Similarly, the second guide, intended for the teachers, consisted of 30 questions relating to their perceptions of self-efficacy in emergency distance response, in reading teaching, classroom management, and the usefulness of Reader’s Theatre activities in facilitating the linguistic, cognitive, learning, social, and emotional development of their emergent bilingual students within the emergency response context (e.g., “Which difficulties did you face integrating drama methods in an online environment?”, “How did your students react emotionally and linguistically to Readers Theater?”).

Reflective journals were used on an individual level in addition to the interviews to collect qualitative data from the teachers. The purpose of these was to explore aspects of the lived educational experience from the action research in which the teachers took part. In the reflective diaries, the teachers recorded views, observations, and thoughts on the actions and the dynamics that developed in the school environment from the implementation of each theater pedagogical activity. A semi-structured form of reflective diary was used in this study, allowing teachers to delve into topics in an almost free style, combining closed-ended and open-ended questions to capture information for analysis and interpretation. Emergent categories from the diaries included themes such as emotional engagement, peer collaboration, perceived reading improvement, and classroom management flexibility. Reflective journals focus on understanding what, how, and why actions are taken in particular ways, and the closer the time of action and journal writing, the richer is the final record.

5.3. Process

During the action research and remote response interventions, teachers were asked to complete the reflection journals provided to them. At the end of the interventions, the research team conducted interviews via Skype with the teachers, who in turn conducted interviews with their students. At the end of this process, qualitative data were collected from (a) 37 teacher interviews, (b) 37 student interviews, and (c) 85 teacher reflection journals.

Once the interviews were completed, the audio recordings of both students and teachers were transcribed in order to convert the digital audio into digital text. Recognizing that any representation is simultaneously a process of transforming reality, as certain elements of spoken language are included or excluded in the transcription of interviews, Mishler’s transcription guidelines (McLellan et al., 2003) were adapted and used in the transcription process. Every effort was made to ensure a comprehensive and detailed recording in order to avoid any loss of richness in the spoken language data.

Upon the completion of each transcript, the entire interview was listened to and the final written product read simultaneously to ensure the most faithful representation of the broader context and specific circumstances of each interview. The transcripts were then imported into ATLAS.ti software (version 8) for qualitative analysis. In addition, the textual material from the reflective diaries was entered into the analysis software for further processing.

5.4. Analyses

The transcripts from the interviews and the textual material from the reflective diaries were imported into the analysis software, followed by electronic coding of the data and the identification of categories and properties through content analysis (Krippendorff, 2018). This process involved identifying important words or phrases within the verbal data (thematic coding) to represent emerging concepts, which were then appropriately named with codes. Each code was assigned a label for technical purposes, facilitating the process of identifying codes within the verbal material. The coding process was conducted by two independent coders. They achieved a high inter-rater agreement, with a Cohen’s Kappa coefficient of 0.89 (inter-rater reliability). Additionally, the reports were quantified to calculate the frequencies of occurrence and prevalence rates. In accordance with the Theory of Planned Behavior, the thematic codes that emerged were subsequently organized into three overarching interpretive domains (behavioral, normative, and control beliefs) as described by Ajzen (see Appendix A 

Table A1. Frequency and relative frequency of coded references to emergency remote implementation.

Belief Type	Source	Quotation (Translated from Greek)
Behavioral Belief	Teacher Interview	“When students dramatized the texts, I could see how their reading fluency improved by the third week.”
	Student Interview	“I understood the story better when we acted it out. I liked being the ‘wolf’ more than just reading.”
	Reflective Diary	“Using expressive reading helped my bilingual students feel more engaged and willing to participate.”
Normative Belief	Teacher Interview	“At first, I hesitated, but my colleagues were also using these techniques, so I felt encouraged to try.”
	Reflective Diary	“Parents mentioned that their children looked forward to the ‘drama days’—this gave me confidence.”
	Student Interview	“My teacher said I was good at reading with emotion. That made me want to read even more.”
Control Belief	Teacher Interview	“The Webex platform had issues, but the clear plan we received made implementation easier.”
	Reflective Diary	“Although I had never done online drama before, the structure of Readers Theater helped me manage it.”
	Student Interview	“Sometimes it was hard to act from my room, but I used my voice and it worked. I learned to be creative.”

).

5.5. Ethical Considerations

This study was designed in agreement with ethical standards and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Primary Education at the University of the Aegean, Greece (Ref. No. 619/2021). All participants were thoroughly informed of the aims, procedures, potential effects, and rights of the study, and informed consent was digitally secured in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. The research protocol meticulously avoided the collection of personal identifiers, preserving participants’ anonymity and minimizing any risk of harm. Participants were assured of their right to withdraw from this study at any time without consequence, thus maintaining their autonomy throughout the research process.

6. Results

From the 1,010 references detected in the data, a total of 34 codes emerged. A total of 111 (10.99%) of the reports were related to technical problems encountered during the remote implementation of Readers Theater (“It was not the best because I had problems with the sound and sometimes, I could not hear my classmates”, 25.57). Moreover, 106 (10.50%) of the reports were positive reviews from the distance implementation (“The procedures were implemented normally and with the same efficiency given the platform’s possibility of group meetings (break sessions)”, 17.39), while 90 reports (8.91%) were negative reviews (“I did not like the distance activities at all! It was very bad not being in the classroom. That was the only thing that made me very sad”, 21.67) (see

Table 1. Frequency and relative frequency of coded references to emergency remote implementation.

Codes	N	N%
Technical problems with remote implementation	111	10.99%
Positive judgments from distance implementation	106	10.50%
Remote implementation dissatisfaction reviews	90	8.91%
Lack of teaching time in e-learning	61	6.04%
Remote implementation reduces the dynamics of communication, cooperation, and self-expression	54	5.35%
The theatrical analogue as a performance event can be satisfactorily implemented in the digital environment	46	4.55%
Reports of superiority of in-person versus remote implementation	45	4.46%
Effective modeling by the teacher in the digital environment	37	3.66%
Implementation of quality group/choral readings in small groups through breakout sessions	32	3.17%

Note. N: Number of coded responses; N%: Percentage of total coded dataset.

).

In 61 (6.04%) reports, the lack of teaching time in tele-education is mentioned (“What I definitely did not like was the limited time, which became even shorter due to the interruption of the face-to-face and the continuation of the program on Webex”, 21.29), and in 54 reports (5.35%), reduced dynamics in communication, collaboration and self-expression is cited (“I found it difficult in the tele-education as it was difficult to recognize the silent language of the students, e.g., body language, gestures, expressions”, 11.36).

Based on 46 statements (4.55%), the theatrical analogue, as a performance event, can be satisfactorily implemented in the digital environment. As one of the participants said: “The theatrical analogue can be implemented in the context of tele-education, since no movement and stage presence is required”, 56.6. In total, 45 (4.46%) statements are related to the superiority of the face-to-face implementation of the theatropedagogical method over the distance method (“…I personally reflect on how different both the processes and the output of the activities would be if we were in our physical classroom…”, 64.8).

Based on 37 (3.66%) reports, it is stated that the teacher can model effectively in the distance environment, acting as a reading model for his/her students (“Some of the steps are implemented to a satisfactory level in the digital environment, especially the first steps. The teacher can read aloud and act as a reading reference model. Also all the discussions concerning the understanding of the story content, the personality of the protagonists, the main points of the action can be done” 110.3). Furthermore, 32 reports (3.17%) stated the effective use of breakout sessions to implement quality group and choral readings in small groups (up to 3 people) (“Definitely the choral reading helped a lot. It was carried out seamlessly even digitally in the breakout sessions”, 70.3), and in 31 reports (3.07%), the positive feelings and enthusiasm of the students during the distance implementation of the theater-educational interventions are mentioned (“The students liked the implementation of drama-educational activities as it was an enjoyable activity. The students participated with pleasure’, 86.2) (see

Table 2. Frequency and relative frequency of coded references to emergency remote implementation.

Codes	N	N%
Students’ positive feelings/enthusiasm during distance learning	31	3.07%
Qualitative implementation of individual rehearsal in the digital environment	29	2.87%
Using technology to enhance digital drama in the distance environment	26	2.57%
The digital environment as a place to practice reading in a time of pandemic	25	2.48%
The remote implementation of theater pedagogical activities as an opportunity for teamwork activities in times of emergency	22	2.18%
Improving students with learning difficulties’ reading ability through the implementation of actions in the digital environment	22	2.18%
Inability to participate seamlessly due to lack of equipment	21	2.08%
Difficulties in implementing choral readings	20	1.98%
Ease of implementation of the “Hot Seating” in the digital environment	20	1.98%

Note. N: Number of coded responses; N%: Percentage of total coded dataset.

).

In 29 reports (2.87%), there is mention of a qualitative implementation of individual rehearsals on Webex (“The activities that were implemented to a certain extent smoothly were the silent reading of the role by the students…”, 124.3), and 26 reports (2.57%) emphasized the use of technology in enhancing the digital drama (“It was easier for students to use technology and integrate it into the presentation of the text, for example, they found music from a flute for background music in the first text”, 79.3). In 25 reports (2.48%), the app was mentioned as a digital environment to practice reading in times of pandemic (“The digital implementation of the theater activities gave students the opportunity to further engage with and practice reading skills”, 41.3), while 22 reports (2.18%) refer to the remote implementation of the theater pedagogical activities as an opportunity for group collaborative activities in a time of emergency (“The realization and implementation of group collaborative activities in the online classroom was something that students had been missing and they embraced it with enthusiasm”, 80.2).

Twenty-two reports (2.18%) refer to the noticeable improvement in the reading ability of students with learning difficulties from the implementation of the activities in the digital environment (“For the digital implementation of the specific activities … helped students with learning difficulties who were facing social problems, plus the fact that the frequent repetition of the scenarios by all improved their reading skills considerably, and as a final result, it again stimulated their self-confidence”, 76.5). Furthermore, 21 reports focus (2.08%) on the inability to participate seamlessly due to the lack of appropriate technological equipment (“…it has affected them negatively as some do not participate in the lessons due to lack of equipment”, 43.11) and 20 reports (1.98%) on difficulties related to the implementation of choral readings (“In the context of conducting the theatrical analogue activities through videoconferencing, the choral reading activity, despite all efforts made, could not be completed. In fact, from the very beginning it seemed that the result of the effort was not nice, as the children stated”, 112.1).

Twenty reports (1.98%) relate to the ease of digitally implementing the “Hot Seating” (“…and the interrogation chair technique is feasible, as children can also use chat to make the questions more targeted”, 74.4), twenty reports (1.98%) are related to the activation of students’ interest by the digital implementation of the theater pedagogical method (“…but there was a good mood and some students tried to set up a “stage” by putting background drawings related to the fairy tale on their screens. Also, one student asked to take care of the sound effects, adding flute music in the first intervention and cheering, and in the second one, frog horns”, 57.3), and eighteen references (1.78%) refer to the willingness to engage with activities in the digital environment (see

Table 3. Frequency and relative frequency of coded references to emergency remote implementation.

Codes	N	N%
Activation of students’ interest by the digital implementation of the theater pedagogical method	20	1.98%
Willingness to engage/participate/respond with activities in the digital environment	18	1.78%
The implementation of the method in the digital medium provides an improvement in reading ability	18	1.78%
Difficulties in adapting to the digital way of teaching	18	1.78%
Development of individual technological/digital skills	16	1.58%
Providing quality distance feedback to students	16	1.58%
Intra-personal development through distance program implementation	14	1.39%
Higher process enjoyment/pleasure in face-to-face versus remote implementation	14	1.39%
Focusing students’ attention, focusing on the digital environment	13	1.29%

Note. N: Number of coded responses; N%: Percentage of total coded dataset.

). The words of one participating teacher are representative: “Some children for whom it seems difficult to participate in live teaching conditions because of shyness or insecurity, the relative concealment of the self via the computer made them feel safe and unfold during the implementation of these activities through distance learning” (60.2).

Furthermore, 18 of the reports (1.78%) argued that the implementation of the method in the digital environment improves reading skills (“Distance learning contributed constructively to the presentation of the theatrical analogues in order to achieve the cultivation and enhancement of reading literacy…”, 65.6). Eighteen (1.78%) references were related to difficulties in adapting to the digital mode of teaching (“It may be my inexperience in this area, i.e., how to manage such computer-based activities”, 67.4) and sixteen references (1.58%) to the development of individual technological/digital skills due to distance learning (“A positive aspect is that students became familiar with the digital environment and acquired skills in handling computers. They also adapted and tried to invent ways in solving problems that arose during the digital implementation of the theater activities”, 55.2).

In 16 reports (1.58%), there was mention of qualitative remote feedback to the students from the teacher (‘…the process of reflection was also smoothly conducted’, 79.4), and in 14 reports (1.39%), intrapersonal development was noted through the remote implementation of the theatropedagogical program (“…it enhanced their inventiveness”, 106.6). Fourteen statements (1.39%) referred to greater enjoyment and pleasure from implementing the theater-educational activities face-to-face compared to distance (“I would like to be in the face-to-face operation of schools. The interaction is not the same in distance. The ‘magic’ feeling of ‘actor/actresses’ and ‘audience’ interaction cannot be the same”, 52.5).

In 13 reports (1.29%), students’ focus and attention on the digital environment is mentioned (“…nevertheless during the digital activities, the majority of students respond well and are very attentive to reading, emphasizing what they read by coloring their voice”, 57.9). In 12 reports (1.19%), it seems that the remote implementation had a positive impact on students with learning difficulties (“The distance learning and digital implementation of the activities helped students with learning difficulties in reading in a positive way. In general, I detected a great desire from the majority of children with learning difficulties to read these texts, and some of them even augmented it with body movements. They seemed to enjoy it and were looking forward to the final performance at the end of the week”, 108.5) (see

Table 4. Frequency and relative frequency of coded references to emergency remote implementation.

Codes	N	N%
Distance learning had a positive impact on students with learning difficulties	12	1.19%
Digital theater performance as motivation	11	1.09%
Reduced student engagement/interest in the digital classroom	10	0.99%
Innovative practices in distance implementation	9	0.89%
Reduced degree of teacher’s supervision of students in the digital environment	8	0.79%
Creative learning atmosphere in the digital environment without fuss	8	0.79%
Ease of sharing reading material/scripts	7	0.69%

N: Number of coded responses; N%: Percentage of total coded dataset.

).

Eleven reports (1.09%) mention the power of digital performance in reading: “A presentation was organized through video conferencing to the parents of the participating students. This provided more motivation for the students, who knew about it from the beginning of the activities” (69.3). Furthermore, there were 10 reports (0.99%) of a decrease in students’ interest in the digital classroom: “Students’ interest decreased on the one hand due to poor connection and on the other hand due to lack of teaching time” (40.11). Additionally, there were 9 reports (0.89%) of innovative practices in the distance implementation of the theater pedagogical activities. As reported by one of the participating teachers: “During the final presentation of each group via Webex, the members of the other groups use emoji faces to applaud, applauding the members of the group presenting each time (which is not done in face-to-face education). This gives the children immediate positive feedback and encouragement at presentation time. This is extremely important, especially for students with difficulties. So that’s one positive aspect of the digital implementation” (50.12).”

Finally, 8 reports (0.79%) are related to the lack of supervision and monitoring of students by the teacher in the digital environment (“Closed cameras and muted microphones prevent the teacher from having a full picture during the lesson”, 117.12), and 8 reports (0.79%) highlight the creative learning climate without noise in the digital environment (“Dividing into groups and reading the text in breakout sessions without the background noise they experienced in the classroom helped make their rehearsals more meaningful. They greatly appreciated this process. The students were attentive to the text because they had to listen carefully to their classmates reading their roles”, 113.2). Additionally, 7 reports (0.69%) mention the ease of digitally sharing reading materials/scripts with the students (“The distribution of the play script… occurred smoothly, as it did in previous instances of the activity”, 80.3).

7. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives of teachers who implemented drama-based reading literacy instruction as an emergency remote response during the COVID-19 pandemic, within the broader context of polycrisis. By analyzing the experiences of teachers and emergent bilingual students, we aimed to identify the behavioral, normative, and control beliefs that influenced the effectiveness of these interventions.

7.1. Behavioral Beliefs from Emergency Remote Drama-Based Literacy Instruction

The qualitative analyses of the emergency distance response and the experiences of those involved, based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, reveal predominantly positive attitudes (behavioral beliefs) towards the use of technologically mediated artful methodologies, such as Readers Theater, in cultivating reading literacy skills. Teachers expressed the perceived usefulness of the creative use of electronic media, for both reading practice activities and group engagements, which significantly enhanced motivation and involvement, especially during periods of limited social interaction. This finding is corroborated by existing research, which underlines the value of technology in enriching digital drama and instruction with interactive tools and multimedia content (Cziboly & Bethlenfalvy, 2020; Davis & Phillips, 2020; Mastrothanasis et al., 2024; Sucena et al., 2022; Tuncer & Karataş, 2022; Vickers, 2020).

However, it is worth noting that some teachers reported an initial skepticism about the pedagogical potential of digital drama methods, particularly in terms of reading fluency development. As implementation progressed, their attitudes shifted significantly, highlighting a potential cognitive dissonance between pre-intervention expectations and post-intervention outcomes.

However, some dissatisfaction emerged due to technological constraints that impeded interaction. The nature of the emergency remote response often reduces the dynamics of communication, collaboration, and self-expression among students, leading to diminished levels of enjoyment compared to face-to-face interaction (Aguliera & Nightengale-Lee, 2020; Yang, 2020). These limitations show that further development and integration of technologies are necessary to create better remote learning experiences. Nonetheless, the consistently high frequency of positive references to Readers Theater in the qualitative material underscores that, despite the constraints, digital drama-based interventions were not only accepted but actively valued by educators and students alike. Combining drama-based methods with distance learning during multiple crises can help maintain, or even improve, student engagement and their learning outcomes. While some difficulties still exist, technology has proven to be an effective tool for overcoming the challenges of remote learning, such as social isolation.

7.2. Control Beliefs and Challenges of Digital Drama-Based Approaches

In terms of control beliefs, this study revealed significant challenges in implementing drama-based reading literacy interventions as part of an emergency remote response. Many teachers reported technical difficulties, reduced instructional time, and challenges in getting used to digital platforms. These issues often affect student participation in a negative way, due to insufficient technological tools, which is in line with the existing literature on the broader challenges of distance education during crises (Abuhammad, 2020; Carrillo & Flores, 2020; Jimoyiannis et al., 2021; Kyriakidis et al., 2024; van der Spoel et al., 2020; Vlachava, 2022; Yang, 2020). These challenges affected teachers’ beliefs toward the feasibility and effectiveness of using drama as a pedagogical tool in emergency remote teaching. As they stated, while the learning experience appeared to be creative and motivating, limited supervision, especially during group activities, was believed to be a significant barrier. This contrast between creative intent and logistical constraints reflects a critical tension in remote instructional design: educators are motivated by pedagogical vision, yet constrained by practical realities. Such tensions were not only expressed explicitly but were also evident in reflective journal entries where teachers voiced frustration over the mismatch between their aspirations and the actual classroom dynamics.

In the Greek context, recent studies have shown that teachers encountered not only technical difficulties and limited digital infrastructure but also the need to rely on informal networks for both professional guidance and emotional support. During emergency remote teaching, many educators in Greece turned to universities, educational authorities, and online communities for resources and collective problem-solving. These experiences highlight the significance of building more robust support mechanisms and digital infrastructure, as recurring issues with student engagement and unequal access to technology remain prevalent in the Greek educational landscape (Jimoyiannis & Koukis, 2023; Kyriakidis et al., 2024; Nikiforos et al., 2024; Vlachava, 2022). The effectiveness of innovative methods, such as drama-based interventions, appears to depend not only on the efforts of individual teachers but also on the presence of collaborative structures for support and ongoing professional development.

Despite these difficulties, technology offered numerous advantages. Teachers were able to give drama-based reading activities to students effectively, to provide feedback in time, to share reading and theater materials efficiently, and to apply drama techniques to achieve educational goals. During the sessions, small group and choral readings were successfully implemented through breakout rooms, which enhanced the collaborative nature of the learning experience. Additionally, during the self-assessment, students’ performances in theater were considered to be successful through those digital platforms, demonstrating the potential of online environments. In this regard, the implementation process itself became a site of transformation, not just for learners but also for the teachers’ professional identities—as many reflected on their evolving competence in integrating artistic practices in virtual settings. These findings show that technology plays an important role in emergency remote teaching, acting both as a tool and a limitation (Cziboly & Bethlenfalvy, 2020). This reveals the need for better digital preparation and teacher training to be able to apply drama-based methods in an effective way to improve bilingual literacy during times of multiple crises.

7.3. Normative Beliefs in Drama-Based Remote Teaching During Crisis

When examining beliefs related to the emergency remote response, it was observed that the technology-mediated implementation of the Readers Theater methodology led to positive emotional responses and increased student engagement. This method kept students’ interest high, increasing their willingness to engage in the learning process. The digital adaptation of these interventions resulted in multiple benefits, including improved reading skills, even among students with learning difficulties, and the development of technological and digital competencies (Mastrothanasis, 2023). Additionally, these drama-based activities promoted intrapersonal growth and improved focusing. A particularly strong motivator for their participation was the digital performance of theatrical analogues, which created a sense of accomplishment and engagement.

Nevertheless, some students initially demonstrated reluctance or anxiety toward performing online. Teachers noted that this discomfort gradually diminished, highlighting a shift in student self-perception and social confidence. This evolution suggests that the intervention had psychosocial and academic effects, even if not uniformly experienced.

The positive emotional and cognitive responses resulting from these activities underscore the value of incorporating creative methodologies into emergency remote education, especially in complex crisis situations (Egwemi & Salifu, 2023; Hatton, 2024; Marschall, 2018; Papakosta et al., 2020; Seubert, 2022; Turner-King & Smith, 2024). By using digital platforms for drama-based interventions, educators managed to maintain student engagement and support the development of bilingual literacy skills, despite the disruptions caused by concurrent crises. This highlights the usefulness of adaptive educational strategies in reducing the adverse effects of multiple crises on learning outcomes.

The findings of this study also highlight the importance of using technology-based, drama-focused interventions during socio-health crises. To effectively implement these methods, technical challenges must be addressed, and digital skills should be improved for both teachers and students (Folostina et al., 2015; Jiang et al., 2023). Although there are difficulties, the improvements observed in reading abilities, digital competence, and the personal growth of bilingual students show the urgent need for changes in the educational policies that support new educational approaches. A detailed plan to equip educators with the skills for using and managing digital tools is essential for keeping education standards high. This includes creating and offering programs that provide teachers with technical and teaching skills that are essential for delivering effective online lessons during emergencies while encouraging remote interaction.

Moreover, this study highlights the need for the recognition and integration of emotional support for bilingual students within educational systems (Graham et al., 2023; Marschall, 2018). The collaborative nature of teamwork, self-expression, and active involvement in drama-based activities emphasizes the importance of a well-prepared educational system that addresses the difficulties of distance learning through creativity. Bringing these interventions into practice requires a revision of the educational policies and practices to make education systems more adaptable and flexible, which would be very helpful during crises. This includes creating support systems to strengthen technological infrastructure and make sure that all students have equal access to learning for all students (Coccolini et al., 2021). It also means that we should refine how we evaluate and provide feedback, to better reward creative teaching. Adjusting educational programs and assessments to meet these needs is important for improving education and supporting learning during those concurrent crises.

7.4. Limitations and Directions for Future Research

This study has several limitations, including a small sample size and no quantitative data, which affect the generalizability of the findings. However, it is important to emphasize that the qualitative, phenomenological approach chosen intentionally prioritizes the deep understanding of participants’ experiences, beliefs, and perceptions, rather than measurable outcomes. Furthermore, this study does not investigate possible cultural differences in the effectiveness of emergency remote responses. The polycrisis context, specifically during the COVID-19 pandemic, adds another layer of complexity that requires further investigation. Future research with a larger and a more diverse sample is essential to verify these findings in different populations. The inclusion of quantitative methods would provide more comprehensive data on the effectiveness of these emergency remote responses and their potential impact on reading literacy skills.

Future studies should examine how students’ diverse cultural characteristics and backgrounds influence the effectiveness of drama-based emergency interventions during crises. It is also recommended that future research should explore the integration of technological tools in drama-based emergency responses and their role in supporting education in those hard times. This would help in developing strategies to overcome technological barriers and increase digital literacy among both teachers and students (Al Mazrooei et al., 2022). Understanding these factors is essential for designing better educational systems capable of educating students during crises (AlQashouti et al., 2023).

8. Conclusions

The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of remote reading instruction using drama-based methods for bilingual students during the COVID-19 pandemic, within the broader context of polycrisis. The findings point to the need to use technology-supported strategies to improve reading skills during humanitarian crises. Despite challenges faced by both teachers and students, the importance of creating innovative teaching approaches when in-person education is not feasible became evident.

This study highlighted the importance of institutional support for teachers through broad-based training programs that equip them with needed tools to integrate digital teaching and the arts during times of crisis. These programs, aligned with the current Ministry of Education initiatives to develop digital classrooms and strengthen digital teaching methods, could serve as a core element in preparing teachers or other educators to respond effectively to various crises.

Furthermore, the study underlined the need for mental and emotional support to students, especially those with migrant backgrounds, who are disproportionately affected during crises (Clark et al., 2020; Puchner et al., 2018). It also underlined the need for developing new educational policies that promote flexible interventions, ensuring that educational systems can remain functional in various emergency situations (Hatton, 2024). Supporting teachers through institutional initiatives is essential for the meaningful implementation of innovative pedagogical approaches, ensuring the continuity of the educational process and strengthening students’ resilience in times of uncertainty.

Finally, the study emphasized the importance of using new approaches for crisis management, particularly those involving cultural and artistic approaches (Bubeck et al., 2024; Chang, 2005; Hirsu et al., 2020; Solga, 2019; Turner-King & Smith, 2024). These social constructivist models are important in responding to disasters and polycrises, as they encourage community involvement, emotional resilience, and collaborative problem-solving (Hatton, 2024; Philippopoulou-Iosifidou & Mastrothanasis, 2025). Addressing these aspects is important for creating remote education systems that can meet the demands of humanitarian crises while supporting the educational and emotional well-being of all students, in line with recent developments in intelligent educational environments.