Self-Medication Practices for Companion Animals in Japan: A Descriptive Survey of Pet Owners’ Use of Over-the-Counter Drugs and Perspectives on Pharmaceutical Care

Abstract

Owner-led self-medication for companion animals is a growing global practice; however, empirical data from Japan remain limited. Framing medication safety within a One Health perspective, this study aimed to characterize Japanese pet owners’ use of over-the-counter (OTC) drugs and identify possibilities for pharmacists to support rational self-medication. A cross-sectional 13-item online survey was administered to 500 owners in Japan between 30 May and 2 June 2025. Data on owner demographics, willingness to consult pharmacists, veterinary visit behavior, and OTC purchasing practices were summarized. Many owners were receptive to pharmacy support; 65% wished to consult a pharmacist, and 6.8% had already done so. Overall, 15.2% reported using OTCs drugs, primarily for treatment or prevention and prioritized perceived effectiveness and safety when selecting products. Some owners managed mild pet illnesses at home, citing perceived mildness and cost as reasons for not visiting a veterinary clinic. There is an unmet demand for accessible expert counseling at the point of purchase. Leveraging community pharmacies linked with pet specialty pharmacies as first-contact hubs could promote appropriate self-medication; doing so would require veterinary-specific training, establishing a formal credential for veterinary pharmacists, and defining pharmacist–veterinarian communication to ensure safe and effective use.

1. Introduction

The responsible use of pharmaceuticals, both in human and veterinary medicine, has become increasingly important as healthcare advances. Pet self-medication broadly refers to the administration of treatment to companion animals by their owners without direct veterinary supervision. While wild animals may instinctively self-treat ailments with natural substances, domestic pets rely entirely on human caregivers for medication [1]. With growing global pet ownership, there has been increasing concern regarding pet owners’ independent medication use, driven by convenience, cost savings, and availability through non-veterinary channels, such as community pharmacies and online platforms [2,3,4]. Such practices carry risks, including inappropriate dosing, adverse drug reactions, and exacerbation of antimicrobial resistance owing to improper antibiotic use [5,6].

Veterinary pharmaceutical care has significantly evolved. Studies from the United States have reported widespread dispensing of pet medications through community pharmacies, with pharmacists often involved in providing medication guidance to pet owners [3,4]. In contrast, Japan’s veterinary medication landscape remains predominantly veterinarian-centric, with medications typically prescribed and dispensed directly in veterinary clinics. Pet pharmaceuticals, including over-the-counter (OTC) medications, remain limited outside clinical settings, and the involvement of pharmacists in animal care is rare. Recent studies have indicated a growing interest among Japanese veterinary professionals in integrating pharmacists into veterinary practice to enhance pharmaceutical care; however, this trend remains at an early stage, and such integration is limited [7,8]. To date, detailed empirical evidence on Japanese pet owners’ actual purchasing behaviors and medication management practices remains insufficient. We hypothesized that pet self-medication practices differ between Japan and other countries because of the variations in access to veterinary pharmaceuticals and extent of the involvement of pharmacists in medication supply, resulting in increased owner-driven decision-making in Japan.

Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the current practices and attitudes surrounding pet medication purchases and self-medication behaviors among Japanese pet owners and explore the potential roles of pharmacists in enhancing veterinary pharmaceutical care.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Survey Design

The companion animals used in this study were dogs and cats, which are common pets in Japan. This study employed a cross-sectional descriptive design using an online questionnaire to investigate pet owners’ behaviors and attitudes toward the purchase and use of OTC medications for companion animals in Japan. The survey focused on OTC medications that do not involve veterinary prescriptions. This study was conducted according to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee for Life Science and Medical Research of the Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University (Ethics Review Number: 2025-A-002-0000).

2.2. Questionnaire Structure

The questionnaire consisted of 13 items divided into three main categories: (1) basic demographic information (e.g., pet type and owner age), (2) experiences and attitudes toward consulting pharmacists regarding pet medications, and (3) purchasing behaviors and decision-making factors related to OTC veterinary drugs. The specific themes included purposes of medication use, sources of information, purchasing channels, product selection criteria, and estimated expenditure. The questionnaire combines multiple-choice and open-ended questions. The complete questionnaire is available in the Supplementary Materials (Questionnaire S1).

2.3. Study Participants and Data Collection

The target population consisted of individuals aged ≥18 years residing in Japan who were currently caring for ≥1 companion animal (dogs, cats, or both). Participants were selected from a panel of registered monitors maintained by the web-based survey company Cross Marketing Inc. (Tokyo, Japan; https://www.cross-m.co.jp/, accessed on 16 April 2025.). The survey was launched on 30 May 2025, with a target sample size of 500 participants. The target number of respondents (500) was calculated to ensure representativeness based on population estimates. Using a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, the minimum required sample size was calculated to be 385; therefore, the target sample size was set at 500 to increase precision. For exploratory species-stratified analyses, we compared dog-only and cat-only owners. Responses were collected via a dedicated web-based platform managed by the survey company Cross Marketing Inc. Invitations were distributed electronically to eligible panel members; no advertisements were made through veterinarians, TV, or other media. Eligible participants were screened based on the above criteria, and only those who provided informed consent were permitted to undertake the survey. All participants were informed that their responses would be anonymized and used solely for research purposes.

3. Results

The target sample size of 500 participants was reached four days later, on 2 June 2025.

3.1. Demographic Characteristics of Pet Owners

Among 500 respondents, 49.2% owned dogs, 42.0% owned cats, and 8.8% owned both (

Table 1. Characteristics of pet owners.

Characteristic		N (%)	Total
The type of pet you keep	Dogs	246 (49.2)	500
	Cats	210 (42.0)
	Both	44 (8.8)
Owner’s age (Years)	18–19	1 (0.2)	500
	20–39	67 (13.4)
	40–59	247 (49.4)
	60–79	184 (36.8)
	≥80	1 (0.2)

). Most responders were aged 40–59 years (49.4%), followed by those aged 60–79 years (36.8%) and 20–39 years (13.4%). Younger (18–19 years) and older (≥80 years) respondents were rare (0.2% each).

3.2. Willingness to Consult Pharmacists About Pet Medications

Approximately 65% of pet owners indicated that they would like to consult a pharmacist regarding pet medications, whereas 6.8% reported that they had already done so (Figure 1a). Among those who had consulted or expressed interest in consulting pharmacists, the common topics included drug selection, administration methods, and adverse event management (Figure 1b,c). In species-stratified analyses, 63.0% of dog owners and 64.3% of cat owners expressed willingness to consult a pharmacist, whereas 8.5% and 3.3%, respectively, had already done so (Figure 2a and Figure 3a). The consultation themes were similar between dogs and cats, indicating comparable pharmaceutical care needs across species (Figure 2b,c and Figure 3b,c).

3.3. Veterinary Visit Behavior and Reasons for Non-Visit

Over the past 3 years, 61.6% of the respondents had taken their pets to veterinary clinics when unwell, while 13.0% had not (Figure 4a). Among those who did not, the primary reasons were mild symptoms, belief in the ability to treat at home, and financial constraints (Figure 4b). Species-stratified analysis showed comparable rates of veterinary visits between dog and cat owners (Figure 5a and Figure 6a). However, the underlying reasons for non-visitation differed, with geographic accessibility being more relevant for dog owners and financial limitations more frequently cited by cat owners (Figure 5b and Figure 6b).

3.4. Use and Purchasing Behavior of OTC Medications for Pets

Overall, 15.2% of respondents reported using OTC medications for their pets (Figure 7a). In species-stratified analyses, 17.9% of dog owners and 11.0% of cat owners had used such products (Figure 8a and Figure 9a). These medications were mainly used for disease prevention, treatment, and health maintenance (Figure 7b, Figure 8b and Figure 9b), most commonly involving flea and tick preventives available without veterinary prescriptions in Japan. Pet owners relied on various information sources, such as veterinarians, the Internet, and pet shops when selecting products (Figure 7c, Figure 8c and Figure 9c). Product effectiveness, safety, and recommendations were the key factors influencing this choice (Figure 7d, Figure 8d and Figure 9d). Common purchase locations included drugstores, online platforms, and pet shops (Figure 7e, Figure 8e and Figure 9e).

3.5. Monthly Expenditure on OTC Pet Medications

Among those who reported using OTC pet medications, most spent less than 3000 yen per month, with 44.7% spending less than 3000 yen and 32.9% spending between 3000 and 5000 yen (

Table 2. Monthly Expenditure on OTC Pet Medications.

Characteristic		N (%)	Total
Monthly expenditure on OTC pet medications	<3000 yen	34 (44.7)	76
	3000 to <5000 yen	25 (32.9)
	5000 to <10,000 yen	13 (17.1)
	10,000 to <30,000 yen	4 (5.3)
	30,000 to <50,000 yen	0 (0.0)
	≥50,000 yen	0 (0.0)

). In the species-stratified analyses, both dog and cat owners showed similar spending trends, with the majority in each group reporting monthly expenditures below 5000 yen (

Table 3. Monthly Expenditure on OTC Pet Medications for dogs.

Characteristic		N (%)	Total
Monthly expenditure on OTC pet medications	<3000 yen	19 (43.2)	44
	3000 to <5000 yen	13 (29.5)
	5000 to <10,000 yen	8 (18.2)
	10,000 to <30,000 yen	4 (9.1)
	30,000 to <50,000 yen	0 (0.0)
	≥50,000 yen	0 (0.0)

and

Table 4. Monthly Expenditure on OTC Pet Medications for cats.

Characteristic		N (%)	Total
Monthly expenditure on OTC pet medications	<3000 yen	13 (56.5)	23
	3000 to <5000 yen	8 (34.8)
	5000 to <10,000 yen	2 (8.7)
	10,000 to <30,000 yen	0 (0.0)
	30,000 to <50,000 yen	0 (0.0)
	≥50,000 yen	0 (0.0)

).

4. Discussion

This study provides the first comprehensive description of Japanese pet owners’ self-medication practices and OTC drug use in companion animals.

By synthesizing owner-reported behaviors, purchasing patterns, and attitudes toward pharmacy support, this study identified actionable community-based strategies to strengthen rational pet self-medication.

The findings suggest a possible gap between owners’ demand and current access to pharmacist consultations. Many owners wish to consult pharmacists about pet medicines, yet only a small fraction have done so. In recent years, a small number of pet specialty pharmacies that accept prescriptions from veterinary hospitals and provide both medication dispensing and compounding/sterile preparation of complex formulations, such as antineoplastic drugs, have emerged in Japan [9,10,11]. Compared with more than 60,000 human pharmacies serving ~120 million people in Japan [12], the small number of pet-specialty pharmacies providing veterinary dispensing covers only a very small portion of the potential need across ~6.8 million dogs and ~9.2 million cats [13]. To efficiently meet latent demand, Japan should implement initiatives to expand or better leverage pet specialty pharmacies and formalize their linkages with community pharmacies (e.g., recommendations of veterinarian consultation for owners, shared protocols, and tele pharmacy support). This means that owners can obtain brief, standardized advice without substituting veterinary diagnosis and care.

Owners prioritize effectiveness and safety but often rely on heterogeneous, non-professional sources. Our findings highlight substantial gaps in owners’ knowledge that may contribute to medication errors and misuse. This observation is consistent with previous reports of inappropriate medication handling by pet owners [5]. Pharmacist-led counseling that raises owners’ pharmaceutical literacy is essential for rational self-medication. Concise point-of-purchase counseling (dosing basics, “do-not-use” human drugs, and clear referral triggers when symptoms persist or worsen) delivered by pharmacists can improve decision quality. Internationally, community pharmacists in the United States and several European countries routinely dispense veterinary prescriptions and provide medication counseling under clearly defined regulatory frameworks [3,4,14]. In these settings, collaboration between pharmacists and veterinarians has been facilitated by established educational pathways and the separation of veterinary medical practice from drug dispensation, allowing pharmacists to handle veterinary prescriptions. In contrast, Japan’s veterinary pharmaceutical system is still largely veterinarian-centered, and OTC products for companion animals are limited in number and scope. These contextual differences highlight the need to develop Japan-specific frameworks for pharmacist participation that align with existing veterinary practice structures and regulatory systems.

Providing species-specific advice will require specialized veterinary training and clear communication channels between pharmacists and veterinarians. The scope, responsibilities, and standards for this training are still under active discussion globally [4,14]. Recent work by Davidson and colleagues has emphasized the need for structured-based curricula in veterinary pharmacy and the establishment of defined professional standards for pharmacists involved in animal care [15]. Japan has begun moving in this direction. For example, a university-led initiative is developing an e-learning pharmacy curriculum for veterinary care, signaling the groundwork for structured preparation [16]. Building on animal pathophysiology and the realities of veterinary practice, pharmacists need a translational skill set that adapts human therapeutics to animal patients, recognizing where human norms align and where species differences render them unsafe or inapplicable. Therefore, co-creating an integrated veterinary pharmacy field jointly shaped by veterinarians and pharmacists remains essential. A practical next step is to develop a certification program for veterinary pharmacists that establishes minimum competency standards for counseling and referral, aligns with international discussions on roles and skills [4,14], and enhances the trustworthiness and reliability of pharmacist-provided guidance in daily OTC contexts.

The modest OTC spending in this survey suggests its use is mainly for minor/preventive needs. The species-stratified results indicated broadly similar spending patterns between dog and cat owners, suggesting that economic considerations may influence pet self-medication behavior across species rather than being species-specific. The overall modest expenditures observed in both groups imply that pet owners tend to limit OTC use to minor or preventive purposes, likely reflecting a combination of economic caution and limited access to veterinary or pharmaceutical guidance. Previous studies have suggested that many Japanese pet owners, particularly those caring for rescued or adopted animals, manage healthcare costs conservatively, which may contribute to uniformly low spending levels [17]. Therefore, pharmacy-based interventions should focus on providing affordable, accessible counseling and promoting appropriate product selection, regardless of pet species. Accordingly, low-cost, scalable pharmacy interventions (standardized counseling, clearer package insert interpretation, and simple documentation/feedback to clinics) are well matched to owner expectations. By improving decision quality at the point of purchase and reducing inappropriate use or delayed referral, these actions advance rational self-medication and contribute to the One Health agenda—including antimicrobial stewardship—by promoting safer medication practices that benefit animal and human health alike [18].

This study has several limitations. First, as this was an online panel survey, respondents interested in pet OTC use may have been more likely to participate, introducing a potential selection bias. Second, this survey targeted only dog and cat owners; however, national surveys indicate that other companion species, such as ornamental fish, birds, rabbits, small rodents, and reptiles, are also common in Japan, limiting generalizability beyond dogs and cats [13]. Nevertheless, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first large-scale owner-centered survey on pet OTC use in Japan. The findings provide important insights into owners’ behaviors and highlight the need for stronger collaboration between pharmacists and veterinarians. Such cooperation is essential to ensure medication safety, reduce misuse, and support owners lacking access to professional guidance at the point of purchase. Future research should evaluate the outcomes of pharmacist interventions and targeted owner education in real-world pharmacy and veterinary settings. Policy initiatives that clarify and promote pharmacists’ roles in veterinary pharmaceutical care may be warranted to meet the growing needs of Japanese society.

5. Conclusions

The findings of this study indicate that Japanese pet owners show a strong interest in pharmacist support, use OTCs mainly for minor/preventive needs with modest spending, and prioritize effectiveness and safety, revealing a gap in expert guidance at the point of purchase. Emerging pet specialty pharmacies are well-positioned as first-contact hubs to deliver brief, standardized counseling without replacing veterinary care. Implementing this pharmacy-led first-contact model will require veterinary-specific training and establishing formal credentials for veterinary pharmacists, together with clear pharmacist–veterinarian communication, to promote rational self-medication and safer use consistent with one’s health.