Universities as Hubs for MSME Capacity Building: Lessons from a Kenyan Bank-Higher Education Institution Training Initiative

Abstract

Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) are vital drivers of economic growth in Kenya, yet they face persistent barriers, including limited capacity, financial exclusion, and weak market integration. This study assessed the potential of universities as strategic hubs for MSME capacity building through a collaborative initiative between Egerton University and the KCB Foundation. Using the International Labour Organization’s Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB) methodology, 481 entrepreneurs from Egerton, Njoro, and Gilgil were trained in a business development bootcamp. This study evaluated the training effectiveness, participant demographics, confidence in skill application, networking outcomes, and satisfaction levels. The results showed high participant confidence (over 95% across all regions), strong financial management uptake (85%), and mobile banking adoption (70%). Gilgil led in inclusivity and peer engagement, while Njoro showed stronger gender representation. However, logistical challenges caused 25% absenteeism in rural areas, and only 23% accessed post-training mentorship. These findings underscore the transformative role of HEIs in fostering sustainable entrepreneurship through localized, inclusive, and industry-aligned training. Policy recommendations include hybrid delivery models, tiered curricula for diverse skill levels, and institutionalized mentorship through public–private partnerships. This case demonstrates the value of embedding entrepreneurship support within university mandates to advance national MSME development agendas.

1. Introduction

Micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) are widely recognized as the backbone of economies worldwide, accounting for approximately 90% of businesses and half of global employment [1]. In developing countries such as Kenya, their role is even more pronounced. MSMEs contribute over 30% of the national GDP and employ about 80% of the workforce, with the majority operating informally [2]. Despite their economic importance, MSMEs face persistent challenges, including limited access to financing, weak managerial capacity, inadequate marketing strategies, and low levels of technology adoption, all of which constrain their growth potential [3,4].

Traditional MSME support mechanisms, often led by governments and non-governmental organizations, have yielded mixed results [5]. This has led to the emergence of innovative institutional partnerships, particularly between financial institutions and higher education institutions (HEIs), as a transformative model for MSME capacity building [6]. Universities offer a unique comparative advantage as training hubs, combining academic knowledge with practical expertise, leveraging local research to address context-specific barriers, and providing inclusive platforms that reach marginalized groups such as women, youth, and refugees [7,8].

Globally, MSMEs in emerging markets continue to grapple with constraints such as financial exclusion, with 65% of small businesses lacking access to formal credit due to informality and insufficient collateral [9]. Furthermore, fewer than 20% of MSME owners in Sub-Saharan Africa have received formal business training, with existing programs often failing to address critical competencies such as digital literacy and market access strategies [10,11]. Gender disparities further exacerbate these barriers, with women-led MSMEs facing a $42 billion financing gap and frequently being excluded from capacity-building initiatives due to entrenched socio-cultural norms [12,13].

In response, universities are increasingly assuming intermediary roles between financial institutions and underserved entrepreneurs [14]. Global examples, such as MIT’s D-Lab and Makerere University in Uganda, illustrate the viability of HEI-led incubation hubs in enhancing MSME resilience through mentorship and prototyping [15,16]. Financial literacy training delivered through university partnerships with institutions like the German development bank (KfW) has been shown to improve loan repayment rates significantly [17]. These cases highlight the potential of university–bank collaborations in addressing MSME constraints at scale [18].

In Sub-Saharan Africa, MSMEs present a paradox: while they employ the majority of the labor force, their contribution to the GDP remains relatively stagnant, indicating persistent productivity gaps [12]. In Kenya, although a vibrant entrepreneurial culture exists, 90% of MSMEs operate informally, limiting their access to financing and government support [2]. Digital adoption also remains low, with only 28% of MSMEs using online tools in their operations [19,20]. Refugee entrepreneurs face additional legal and financial barriers, further excluding them from mainstream economic systems [18].

HEIs across the region are beginning to implement more tailored interventions. For example, Makerere University’s collaboration with Stanbic Bank has led to a 35% increase in revenue for participating MSMEs, while the University of Cape Town’s refugee-focused programs have significantly improved formalization rates by integrating legal assistance with vocational training [16,21]. Despite these promising outcomes, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of such interventions across diverse socio-economic contexts remains limited.

In Kenya, MSME dynamics vary widely by region, influenced by the sectorial focus and rural–urban divides. Although the MSME Act of 2022 mandates county governments to support entrepreneurship training, less than 10% have implemented this provision [22]. In this context, HEI–bank collaborations offer a scalable and effective alternative. However, there remains a dearth of empirical data on the role of universities in MSME training and empowerment.

This study evaluated a tripartite intervention conducted across Egerton, Njoro, and Gilgil, targeting three critical barriers identified through a needs assessment of 1200 MSMEs: financial illiteracy (with 80% lacking basic accounting skills), low digital adoption (only 15% used online marketing tools), and the exclusion of marginalized groups (women and refugees made up less than 20% of previous program beneficiaries). The specific objectives of the study are as follows:

• To evaluate the extent to which university-led entrepreneurship training improves the business competencies of MSME participants;
• To assess how the integration of inclusive practices (such as refugee and gender-responsive design) influences participation and satisfaction levels among marginalized groups;
• To analyze regional variations in training outcomes across Egerton, Njoro, and Gilgil, and identify contextual factors that explain these differences;
• To examine the mentorship gaps that emerge post-training and assess their implications for the sustainability of MSME business outcomes.

First, it provides empirical insights into the underexplored role of African HEIs as intermediaries in bank-led MSME training initiatives. Second, it identifies context-specific success factors, such as gender-responsive program design and refugee inclusion, that influence training outcomes. Third, it offers a comparative regional analysis, demonstrating how Kenya’s socio-cultural and economic diversity affects the implementation and impact of MSME interventions.

Against this backdrop, this study investigated the capacity of Kenyan higher education institutions (HEIs) to act as transformative hubs for MSME development through strategic partnerships with financial institutions. Specifically, this research explores the outcomes of a university-led business bootcamp implemented in collaboration with a commercial bank. While existing literature affirms the theoretical potential of university–industry linkages, empirical evidence on the design, effectiveness, and inclusivity of such models in Sub-Saharan Africa remains limited.

Therefore, this study addressed the following research questions: (1) To what extent does university-led entrepreneurship training improve the business competencies of MSME participants? (2) How does the integration of inclusive practices (refugee and gender-responsive design) influence participation and satisfaction levels among marginalized groups? (3) What are the regional variations in training outcomes across Egerton, Njoro, and Gilgil, and what contextual factors explain these differences? (4) What are the post-training mentorship gaps, and how do they affect the sustainability of business outcomes for MSMEs?

2. Conceptual and Theoretical Underpinning

2.1. Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework adopted by this study. The framework illustrates how a strategic partnership between banks and higher education institutions (HEIs) can effectively enhance MSME capacity building in Kenya by adapting the ILO’s Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB) methodology to local contexts [3]. At its core, this framework positions universities as critical intermediaries that transform financial resources and banking expertise into practical entrepreneurial competencies for MSMEs. Unlike conventional training models that operate in isolation, this integrated approach combines the academic strength of HEIs with the market insights and financial tools of banking partners, creating a synergistic ecosystem for enterprise development [23].

The framework modifies the standard SIYB model through three key innovations tailored to Kenya’s socio-economic landscape. First, it localizes training content to address sector-specific needs, with specialized modules for agriculture, retail, and service-based enterprises that dominate Kenya’s MSME sector. Second, it embeds digital skill development throughout the curriculum, particularly focusing on mobile money management (M-Pesa), social media marketing, and e-commerce platforms that are revolutionizing small business operations [24]. Third, and perhaps most critically, the framework institutionalizes inclusion by reserving participation slots for women, refugees, and differently-abled entrepreneurs, while also providing Swahili-language materials and disability accommodations like Braille manuals and sign language interpreters.

Four interconnected phase’s structure the framework’s implementations. The input phase mobilizes resources from both banks (funding, loan products) and universities (training infrastructure, research insights, and mentorship). The training phase then delivers adapted SIYB modules covering entrepreneurial mindset development (GYB), financial literacy (SYB), and business growth strategies (IYB). A dedicated inclusion phase ensures equitable participation and follow-up support through physical and mobile-based mentorship (WhatsApp groups). Finally, a robust outcome measurement system tracks both immediate knowledge gains and longer-term business performance indicators like loan uptake, revenue growth, and job creation.

Its design directly responds to identified weaknesses in Kenya’s current MSME support systems by creating policy-aligned, measurable, and replicable interventions that can be scaled across counties [25]. The incorporation of real-time mobile monitoring and feedback mechanisms represents a significant advancement over traditional SIYB implementations, enabling continuous program improvement while maintaining fidelity to the core methodology.

By situating universities as hubs that connect financial resources with entrepreneurial training, this framework offers a sustainable model for MSME development that transcends the limitations of standalone interventions. Its emphasis on localized content, digital adaptation, and systematic inclusion not only enhances immediate training outcomes but also fosters an enabling ecosystem for long-term enterprise growth, making it particularly relevant for Kenya’s evolving economic landscape and adaptable to similar contexts across Sub-Saharan Africa [26]. The framework’s inherent flexibility allows for ongoing refinement based on emerging needs, ensuring its continued relevance as both the MSME sector and supporting technologies advance.

2.2. Theoretical Underpinnings of the Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework’s theoretical foundations combine human capital theory (emphasizing skill development), social network theory (leveraging university-mediated connections), financial inclusion principles (bridging credit access gaps), Experiential Learning Theory (Experience → Reflection → Action), and Capability Theory (Opportunities → Freedoms → Functioning). The theoretical foundations explain how and why bank-HEI partnerships can effectively enhance MSME capacity building in Kenya. At its core, the framework integrates five complementary theoretical perspectives that collectively address the cognitive, relational, and structural dimensions of entrepreneurial development.

First, Human Capital Theory [27] provides the fundamental rationale for investing in entrepreneurial training. This theory posits that knowledge and skills acquired through education and training constitute a form of capital that enhances productivity and economic outcomes [28]. In this framework, the adapted SIYB methodology serves as the primary mechanism for human capital development, with its structured modules (GYB, SYB, IYB) systematically building participants’ business management capabilities. The theory explains why the framework emphasizes not just knowledge transfer but measurable competency development through pre- and post-training assessments. By aligning specific training components with identified skill gaps among Kenyan MSMEs, particularly in financial literacy and digital tools adoption, the framework operationalizes human capital theory in a contextually relevant manner.

Second, Social Network Theory [29] informs the framework’s emphasis on relationship-building and market linkages. The theory’s core premise about the strength of weak ties is particularly relevant for MSMEs in developing economies, where formal business networks are often limited. The framework intentionally positions universities as network hubs that connect trainees with potential suppliers, customers, and financiers. This is achieved through structured networking sessions, alumni mentorship programs, and digital platforms that maintain post-training engagement. The theory helps explain why the framework dedicates significant resources to fostering these connections, as they often prove more valuable than the training content itself in facilitating business growth and opportunity identification.

Third, Financial Inclusion Theory [30] underpins the framework’s innovative approach to bridging the credit access gap. This theory highlights how information asymmetries and a lack of collateral exclude MSMEs from formal financial systems. The framework addresses this by creating a certification pathway where training completion serves as a proxy for creditworthiness, reducing banks’ perceived risk. This theoretical perspective justifies the framework’s bank partnership model and its focus on aligning training outcomes with lenders’ risk assessment criteria. The incorporation of mobile-based follow-up (online surveys) further enhances financial inclusion by generating verifiable data on business performance that can inform lending decisions.

The framework also draws upon Experiential Learning Theory [31] in its pedagogical approach. The cyclical learning process of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation is embedded throughout the training design. This manifests in business simulations, peer feedback sessions, and market linkage projects that ensure practical application of concepts. Additionally, Capability Theory [32] informs the framework’s inclusive design, particularly its adaptations for women, refugees, and differently-abled entrepreneurs. By focusing on converting resources into real opportunities, the framework moves beyond simple skills transfer to enable meaningful economic participation.

This enriched theoretical framework directly informs the interpretation of findings presented in the subsequent sections of the paper. For instance, improvements in MSME digital literacy and financial record-keeping are best understood through the Human Capital and Experiential Learning frameworks. Similarly, the success of peer mentorship platforms is supported by Social Network Theory, while the increased participation of women and refugees aligns with the Capability Approach. By integrating these frameworks, this study offers a holistic explanation for both the measurable training outcomes and the enabling conditions that shaped them.

To better illustrate how the theoretical perspectives inform the study’s design and outcomes,

Table 1. Summary of Theoretical Frameworks Informing the Design and Outcomes of University-Led MSME Training.

Theory	Key Concept	Application in the Study	Overlap with Other Theories	Relative Importance
Human Capital Theory	Skills as economic assets	Informs core training modules (financial literacy, digital tools, record-keeping)	Complementary to Experiential Learning	High
Social Network Theory	Value of weak ties and peer networks	Justifies structured networking events, alumni mentorship, WhatsApp peer groups	Enhances outcomes from Human Capital Theory	Medium
Financial Inclusion Theory	Access to financial services via intermediaries	Explains the role of HEIs in bridging MSMEs and banks; creditworthiness through training certification	Reinforces Human Capital in bank partnerships	High
Experiential Learning Theory	Learning by doing	Shapes the bootcamp’s hands-on methodology (role-playing, case studies, simulations)	Aligned with Human Capital Theory	High
Capability Approach	Expanding freedom and functional capacity	Informs inclusive design: child care, sign language, Swahili materials, disability accommodation	Broader social lens complements all theories	Medium

summarizes their roles, overlaps, and distinctions.

Among these, Human Capital Theory, Experiential Learning, and Financial Inclusion Theory played the most central explanatory roles. They directly informed the training’s structure, delivery, and post-training financial linkages, while Social Network and Capability theories enhanced inclusivity and relational dimensions. Together, these frameworks formed an integrated theoretical backbone that ensured the intervention addressed both economic and social determinants of MSME success.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Research Design and Philosophical Underpinnings

This study adopted a sequential mixed-methods explanatory design [33] that was rooted in a pragmatic paradigm to evaluate the KCB Foundation–Egerton Business Development Bootcamp. The design was selected for its focus on generating practical, actionable insights that bridge empirical data with on-the-ground realities. The research design was structured to achieve three key objectives. First, it quantitatively assessed the effectiveness of the training using standardized instruments, such as pre/post-knowledge tests and Likert-scale satisfaction surveys. Second, it qualitatively examined participant experiences and contextual barriers through individual interviews, focus groups, structured observations, and trainer debriefs.

Third, it triangulated the findings across both data streams to enhance internal validity and deepen interpretive richness. This mixed-methods approach responds to widespread critiques of MSME training evaluations that tend to rely heavily on post-intervention surveys, often failing to capture implementation dynamics and novel outcomes [34]. By integrating both numerical metrics (such as a 90% satisfaction rate) and qualitative insights (such as the role of onsite childcare in supporting female attendance), the design not only measured the “what” of the program’s impact but also revealed the “why” behind key outcomes.

3.2. Participant Sampling and Representativeness

3.2.1. Sampling Framework

To ensure representativeness and relevance, this study adopted a three-stage stratified sampling process designed to reflect the diversity of Kenya’s micro, small, and medium enterprise (MSME) landscape. The first stage involved sectoral stratification whereby the sample comprised of entrepreneurs from four key sectors: agriculture (28%), retail (32%), manufacturing (20%), and services (20%). This approach ensured that insights from the study would be generalizable across the economic sectors that dominate MSME activity in Kenya.

The second stage focused on geographic allocation. Participants were drawn from three locations, Egerton (n = 163), Njoro (n = 159), and Gilgil (n = 159), to ensure balanced regional representation across the intervention zones. These areas were selected due to their participation in the KCB Foundation’s Bootcamp program and their differing rural–urban dynamics, which allowed for a comparative analysis of location-based outcomes. The final stage applied demographic quotas to maintain inclusivity and balance. The gender distribution closely mirrored national trends, with 52% male and 48% female participants. The sampling framework also accounted for vulnerable groups, including individuals living with disabilities. Notably, 4.2% of participants in Njoro identified as differently abled, reflecting the program’s intentional inclusion strategy and sensitivity to accessibility needs.

3.2.2. Recruitment Protocol

The recruitment strategy for the MSME Bootcamp was designed to address persistent challenges in engaging small-scale entrepreneurs, particularly youth, in structured training programs. A two-phase approach was implemented to maximize reach, enhance credibility, and increase participation rates. The first phase involved data mining through online and physical onboarding of MSMEs in the program. The research team collaborated with the KCB Foundation with support of the KCB Bank targeted branches to access its existing database of entrepreneurs across Nakuru County. Filters were applied to prioritize youth-owned businesses (entrepreneurs aged 18–35) and active engagement in key sectors such as agriculture, retail, manufacturing, and services. This targeted selection ensured relevance and readiness for capacity-building interventions.

The second phase focused on active outreach to convert eligible individuals into confirmed participants. Outreach methods included SMS confirmation for the bootcamp, followed by up to three rounds of personalized phone call follow-ups for those who did not initially respond. To strengthen trust and legitimacy, community leaders were enlisted to endorse the program and encourage participation, especially in more skeptical or underserved communities. These combined efforts proved effective, resulting in a 77.6% attendance rate, with 481 out of 620 invited entrepreneurs taking part in the training. This is higher than the average 50–60% turnout typically observed in comparable MSME programs in East Africa [35]. Among the 22.4% who did not attend, the main barriers cited were transport constraints (67%), seasonal business demands (23%), and caregiving responsibilities (10%). These insights informed post-program recommendations aimed at improving future outreach and logistical planning for inclusive entrepreneurship training.

3.3. Intervention Design and Delivery

The intervention was designed by adapting the International Labour Organization’s Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB) methodology, delivered through five modules. The innovation in our study lies in its application within a university context, combined with inclusive adaptations (such as on-site childcare and refugee outreach), which are largely absent in prior SIYB implementations [36]. In addition, the methodology was tailor-made to fit the Kenyan micro, small, and medium enterprise (MSME) context. This adaptation process involved both content contextualization and innovative pedagogical strategies. A contextualization matrix was employed to align standard SIYB components with local realities.

3.3.1. Objectives of the Training

The training was designed based on a thorough needs assessment that identified gaps among MSMEs. Its primary goal was to enhance the participants’ overall business capabilities through targeted skill development. Key objectives included improving financial literacy by equipping participants with essential skills in financial management, budgeting, and understanding tax and regulatory requirements. Another objective was to strengthen strategic planning, helping MSMEs develop formal business plans and set realistic, achievable goals. The training also aimed to boost marketing skills by introducing digital marketing strategies and effective customer engagement techniques. Additionally, participants were familiarized with digital tools such as customer relationship management (CRM) systems, accounting software, and e-commerce platforms to modernize their operations. Lastly, the program sought to build business resilience by teaching strategies for risk management and emergency fund planning, which are vital for sustaining business operations through challenges.

3.3.2. Overview of Modules Covered

The training was organized into two half-day sessions to allow MSMEs to balance participation with their business responsibilities. Each session focused on distinct themes and practical topics aligned with the overarching goal of strengthening participants’ business skills.

Day 1: Financial Management, Strategic Planning, and Business Growth

The first day began with Module 1: Financial Literacy and Record Keeping, which aimed to enhance participants’ understanding of financial statements and their importance in business decision-making. The module also equipped participants with skills in budgeting and cash flow management, and improved their knowledge of tax compliance and regulatory requirements. The session covered different sources of credit available to MSMEs and the components of financial statements like balance sheets, income statements, and cash flow statements, and practical budgeting tips. Participants also learned about key tax obligations and how to meet them. By the end of the module, participants were better equipped to manage their finances sustainably.

Next was Module 2: Strategic Business Planning, which guided participants through the development of formal business plans and the setting and reviewing of business goals. The module emphasized the importance of setting SMART goals (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound), and equipped participants with strategies for adapting to market changes to remain competitive. Participants learned to create comprehensive business plans and develop flexible strategies that respond effectively to dynamic markets.

The final session on day one, Module 3: Workforce Development and Inclusion, highlighted the benefits of workforce training and the critical importance of inclusive hiring practices. Participants explored strategies for investing in employee development and fostering a diverse, inclusive work environment that welcomes people with disabilities. This module helped participants recognize that workforce inclusion is not only ethical but also enhances business productivity and sustainability.

Day 2: Marketing, Digital Tools, and Business Resilience

The second day focused on helping participants harness technology to build resilient businesses. Module 4: Marketing and Customer Engagement trained participants in developing effective marketing strategies, introducing them to social media and digital marketing techniques. Participants learned how to create marketing plans and use platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn to grow their businesses. They were also familiarized with e-commerce platforms such as Shopify and Jumia, which enable SMEs to sell products online and reach wider markets.

The final module, Module 5: Technology and Digital Tools for SMEs, introduced participants to customer relationship management (CRM) and accounting software, including tools like Excel, QuickBooks, and Zoho CRM. Participants received training in using mobile banking and digital payment platforms to facilitate transactions. The session also covered how business data can be analyzed and used effectively to guide decision-making. This module provided practical insights on leveraging digital tools to streamline operations and enhance business performance.

3.3.3. Training Modes and Approaches Used

The Business Development Bootcamp was carefully designed to be interactive, practical, and centered on the participants’ needs, ensuring that MSMEs could immediately apply their new knowledge and skills to their businesses. The training was grounded in the Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB) methodology, a globally recognized program developed by the International Labour Organization (ILO). This approach emphasizes practical learning focused on real-world applications rather than theory; encourages active participation through group discussions and hands-on exercises; and uses a modular structure to break down complex topics into manageable parts for better understanding.

To foster engagement, the training incorporated a variety of interactive sessions. Participants worked in small groups for discussions and gallery walks where they shared challenges and brainstormed solutions. Real-life case studies illustrated key concepts and demonstrated their application in different business contexts. Role-playing exercises allowed participants to practice scenarios such as customer interactions, financial negotiations, and marketing pitches, helping build confidence and practical skills. Hands-on workshops formed a key part of the program, enabling participants to apply what they learned immediately. These included activities such as developing business plans using templates; practicing financial record-keeping and preparing basic financial statements; and engaging with digital tools like Zoho CRM software, accounting platforms, and e-commerce systems. These workshops ensured that learning went beyond theory to actionable skills.

In addition to interactive and practical elements, trainers delivered presentations on core topics supported by visual aids, including slides and videos. These sessions provided foundational knowledge on subjects like financial literacy, business planning, marketing, and risk management. To clarify complex points and address participant concerns, dedicated question-and-answer sessions were held at the end of each module, promoting a deeper understanding. The training also included mechanisms for continuous improvement through daily feedback, enabling trainers to adjust the content and delivery in real time. A post-training evaluation assessed the overall effectiveness of the program and identified areas for enhancement. Technology played a supporting role by introducing participants to mobile banking apps, accounting software, and e-commerce platforms. Multimedia resources such as videos, infographics, and online materials helped explain challenging topics in an engaging and accessible way.

Importantly, the training was designed to be inclusive and accessible to all participants, including those with disabilities. Adaptive materials such as large print and audio formats were provided, and activities were structured to ensure full participation regardless of ability, promoting an inclusive learning environment.

3.3.4. Training Reference Materials

To support the effectiveness of the Business Development Bootcamp, a variety of practical and user-friendly reference materials were developed, all aligned with the SIYB methodology. The core training content was organized around the internationally recognized SIYB modules of Start Your Business (SYB), which focuses on foundational business planning and financial management; Improve Your Business (IYB), covering more advanced topics like marketing, record-keeping, and workforce management; and Expand Your Business (EYB), which addresses strategies for growth, investment planning, and risk management. These modules were customized to reflect the specific needs identified during the training needs assessment. Detailed presentation slides were used throughout the training to convey key ideas. These included visual aids such as charts, graphs, and infographics designed to simplify complex ideas, step-by-step guides for tasks like creating business plans or preparing financial statements, and case studies to illustrate practical applications.

Participants were provided with ready-to-use business plan templates to help define their goals, identify target markets, and develop financial projections and operational plans. The templates were designed to be easy to use, even for those with limited prior experience in business planning. Printed handouts and worksheets supplemented learning with practical guides on financial literacy topics such as budgeting and tax compliance, marketing checklists for developing strategies and leveraging digital tools, and record-keeping templates for tracking business performance. Real-life case studies were integral to the training, demonstrating how successful businesses overcame challenges similar to those faced by participants. These examples encouraged critical thinking and helped develop problem-solving skills by showing practical ways to apply training concepts.

Digital resources were also introduced to help participants integrate technology into their business operations. These included guides for popular accounting software, tutorials for setting up and managing e-commerce platforms, and instructions on using mobile banking apps for financial transactions. Multimedia materials such as short explanatory videos, infographics summarizing key concepts, and links to relevant online resources enhanced participant engagement and understanding. To gather participant feedback and continuously improve future sessions, evaluation forms were distributed. These forms enabled attendees to assess the training content, delivery, and relevance, while also providing suggestions for improvement.

3.3.5. Climate Setting Activities Before Delivery of Training Modules

Before the training modules were delivered, a series of climate-setting activities were conducted to establish a conducive and engaging learning environment. These activities were carefully designed to break the ice among participants, many of whom were meeting for the first time, fostering a sense of camaraderie and ease. They aimed to enhance engagement by keeping participants attentive, interactive, and participative throughout the training. Additionally, the activities created a positive learning atmosphere that was both relaxed and focused, encouraging open communication and collaboration. Importantly, they helped set the tone for learning by transitioning participants from their daily routines into a mindset ready for acquiring new skills and knowledge.

At the start of each training session, several key activities were implemented to achieve these objectives. Participants were warmly welcomed by the trainers and invited to introduce themselves by sharing their names, businesses, and expectations for the training. This helped build connections and prepared everyone for collaborative learning. Interactive icebreaker games, such as Two Truths and a Lie and Business Bingo, were used to energize participants and dismantle social barriers. Small group discussions followed, where participants shared their expectations and business challenges, enabling trainers to tailor the sessions to their specific needs.

To maintain energy and focus, short energizers and team-building exercises, like problem-solving challenges and role-playing scenarios, were conducted periodically. Trainers also incorporated interactive polls and quizzes to assess participants’ prior knowledge and spark curiosity, making it easier for everyone to contribute during discussions. Storytelling sessions provided a platform for trainers and participants to share relatable experiences about their business journeys, challenges, and successes. Successful local entrepreneurs were invited to share their stories, adding inspiration and making the learning experience more relatable and human.

3.4. Data Collection

To align with the study’s practical objectives and training context, a mixed-methods data collection approach was adopted. The instruments were developed specifically for this initiative and underwent content validation through expert review by trainers from the KCB Foundation and Egerton University. While no formal statistical validation (such as factor analysis or internal consistency tests) was conducted, the tools were carefully aligned with the training modules of the SIYB program to ensure content relevance.

On the quantitative side, three primary tools were used. First, post-training knowledge tests and evaluation forms were administered to assess participants’ understanding of core business competencies (Appendix A). An example question included: “Which financial statement shows whether a business is making a profit or a loss?” Although these tests provided a snapshot of knowledge levels at the end of the training, it is important to note that no pre-training assessment was conducted, which limits the ability to measure learning gains.

Second, daily feedback surveys were used to capture participants’ perceptions of the training using a 5-point Likert scale. Key dimensions included the relevance of content, trainer effectiveness, clarity of delivery, and adequacy of training facilities. These surveys served both evaluative and formative functions, allowing for real-time adjustments during the bootcamp.

Third, a demographic profiling tool was administered at the start of the training to capture baseline characteristics such as gender, age, education level, prior business experience, refugee status, and disability inclusion. This enabled segmentation of outcomes and assessment of reach and diversity.

The qualitative component enriched the dataset and provided context to the quantitative findings. Structured observations were conducted during training sessions, using an adapted version of Bales’ Interaction Process Analysis framework. Observers recorded both task-oriented behaviors (such as note-taking, asking module-specific questions) and socioemotional behaviors (such as encouragement, laughter), as well as patterns of peer collaboration and help-seeking.

Focus group discussions (FGDs) further captured participants’ experiences in their own words. Conducted in local languages to maximize expressiveness and comfort, eight FGDs were held, each involving four to six participants. Prompts were action-oriented, such as: “Describe one skill you plan to apply immediately”. These discussions offered valuable insights into how participants intended to apply the knowledge in real-world business settings.

Lastly, trainer debrief sessions were held daily—30 min reflective meetings among facilitators to document successes, challenges, and participant feedback. These sessions served as an internal feedback loop, guiding real-time pedagogical and logistical adaptations.

3.5. Analytical Approach

This study employed a robust analytical approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative techniques to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness of the MSME training program. For the quantitative analysis, the researchers began with descriptive statistics to summarize and interpret key variables. This included calculating mean satisfaction scores by training module, which helped identify which areas participants found most and least valuable. For the qualitative analysis, the study adopted the Framework Analysis approach as outlined by [30] (1994). This method was selected for its systematic yet flexible structure, which is well-suited for applied policy research. The first step involved verbatim transcription of audio-recorded focus groups and interviews.

These were carefully translated from Swahili to English, with back-translation employed to ensure accuracy and preserve clear meaning. The next step was coding, using a hybrid strategy. Deductive codes were based on the training’s original SIYB (Start and Improve Your Business) objectives, such as financial record-keeping and market analysis. At the same time, inductive codes emerged from the data itself, capturing unanticipated but recurring themes such as “transport anxiety” or “peer mentorship influence.” This dual coding process enriched the interpretive depth of the analysis. Finally, the team employed matrix mapping to visualize how key themes manifested across the different training sites. For example, the theme of “digital barriers” showed high intensity in Egerton, moderate in Njoro, and low in Gilgil. This type of comparative matrix allowed the researchers to contextualize the findings spatially and develop region-specific insights.

3.6. Ensuring Qualitative Research Rigor

To strengthen the trustworthiness of findings, multiple strategies were employed. Credibility was ensured through triangulation of data sources (interviews, surveys, observations), researchers, and theoretical frameworks. Dependability was reinforced by maintaining a transparent audit trail documenting key analytic decisions. Confirmability was achieved through reflexive journaling and peer debriefing, particularly to address potential biases around assumptions of technology use. Ethical clearance was obtained from Egerton University, and informed consent was secured in participants’ preferred languages (Appendix B). Confidentiality and data security were prioritized, and benefit-sharing measures ensured that training resources were accessible to all participants.

4. Results of the Study

The findings from the KCB Foundation–Egerton Business Development Bootcamp offer important insights into the effectiveness of university-led MSME training and depict innovative strategies for addressing long-standing challenges in entrepreneurial development. Using a mixed-methods approach, integrating quantitative post-training assessments, qualitative feedback, and structured observations, this study offers a comprehensive evaluation of the bootcamp’s impact, identifies implementation challenges, and contributes new knowledge to the field of MSME capacity building.

4.1. High Participant Engagement and Skill Acquisition

The program achieved high levels of participant satisfaction, with an overall approval rate of 90%. In Gilgil, 87.4% of participants reported that the bootcamp fully addressed their expectations, compared to 78.1% in Njoro, suggesting regional differences in both prior exposure and content expectations. Digital literacy outcomes were particularly strong: 96.4% of Gilgil attendees reported confidence in applying digital tools after the training, a result attributed to experiential learning components such as live demonstrations of e-commerce platforms and customer relationship management (CRM) software. The SIYB methodology’s interactive design proved especially effective in improving financial literacy. Sessions on budgeting, cash flow management, and tax compliance were rated as the most valuable by 82.7% of participants at Egerton. This reinforces earlier findings on the importance of financial education [37] while adding new evidence about how higher education institutions can enhance such training by incorporating localized case studies and practical applications.

4.2. Gender Distribution

As presented in Figure 2, the bootcamps were male-dominated across all three regions, but to varying degrees. Egerton had the highest male representation (56.4%), followed by Gilgil (52.2%) and Njoro (47.2%). Conversely, Njoro exhibited the highest female participation at 52.8%, suggesting a more gender-balanced composition.

4.3. Refugee and Displaced Person Inclusion

As indicated in Figure 3, participation of refugees and displaced persons in the bootcamp varied by location. While representation remained low in Egerton (1.2%) and Njoro (1.3%), Gilgil reported a significantly higher inclusion rate of 5.7%. Qualitative feedback reinforces the value of inclusive practices. One refugee entrepreneur from Gilgil shared: “Many trainings use complex English, but here, the trainers’ simplified terms and even used Swahili when needed. For the first time, I didn’t feel excluded because of my language barrier.” This testimony underscores how thoughtful adjustments in language and delivery can significantly enhance accessibility for vulnerable groups. Such findings highlight the need for context-specific and culturally sensitive engagement strategies to ensure equitable participation in business development initiatives.

The importance of tailored approaches is echoed in existing literature. Ref. [38] (2024) advocate for community-led participatory design workshops to empower refugee and migrant women, emphasizing the necessity of culturally relevant learning environments. Similarly, ref. [39] (2022) found that early intervention programs significantly improve labor market integration for refugees. Together, these findings underscore a broader principle: effectively integrating displaced populations into entrepreneurial ecosystems requires more than open access; it demands proactive outreach, adaptive program design, and culturally competent facilitation. Gilgil’s relatively strong performance in this area offers a promising example of how inclusive strategies can translate into meaningful participation for marginalized groups.

4.4. Inclusion of Differently Abled Participants

The inclusion of differently abled individuals in the bootcamp remained relatively low across all locations (Figure 4). Njoro reported the highest participation at 4.4%, followed by Gilgil at 1.9% and Egerton at 1.8%. Feedback from participants pointed to some positive steps. A differently abled entrepreneur in Njoro remarked, “The venue had ramps, which was great.” Such infrastructure improvements are important, but the overall participation rates suggest that more systemic efforts are needed to support accessibility and inclusion.

The low representation of differently abled individuals across all regions highlights the need for more intentional design and outreach. This includes not only ensuring physical accessibility but also adapting training materials, offering assistive technologies, and establishing partnerships with disability-focused organizations for more effective recruitment. Ultimately, enhancing inclusivity for differently abled entrepreneurs requires a holistic approach, addressing both logistical barriers and social inclusion gaps. Proactive strategies can ensure that entrepreneurship development programs are not only open to all but truly accessible and empowering for every participant, regardless of physical ability.

4.5. Training Content Coverage and Participant Satisfaction

Participants were asked whether the bootcamp fully addressed the topics they had expected. Satisfaction levels varied across locations, with Gilgil reporting the highest proportion of participants who felt the content met their expectations (87.4%), followed by Egerton (81.0%) and Njoro (76.1%) as illustrated in Figure 5. In contrast, Njoro’s relatively higher rate of partial satisfaction (23.9%) points to possible gaps in either content delivery or the initial communication of learning objectives.

Verbal feedback from participants offers further insight. A Gilgil MSME remarked: “Before this training, I struggled with keeping records, but the financial management module gave me a step-by-step system. Now, I track daily sales, expenses, and even separate my household and business finances. It has transformed how I manage my shop.” A participant from Njoro shared:

“The marketing session was useful, but as a poultry farmer, I needed more examples of how small-scale agribusinesses like mine can use social media. A case study from someone in my industry would’ve made it perfect.” Similarly, an MSME from Egerton noted: “The digital marketing concepts were clear in theory, but I’m still unsure how to apply them to my kiosk. Maybe a follow-up session where we practice setting up a real Facebook page would help.”

These reflections point to the importance of tailoring training content to the specific contexts and sectors of participants. The differences in satisfaction across regions highlight the need for more localized curriculum development. In Gilgil, the high satisfaction levels suggest strong alignment between participant needs and training delivery. Customizing training to reflect the unique realities and challenges of MSMEs in each region can, therefore, enhance the relevance, impact, and overall effectiveness of capacity-building initiatives.

4.6. Confidence in Applying Skills

Figure 6 shows that confidence in applying the concepts learned during the bootcamp was consistently high across all regions, with over 95% of participants in each location reporting strong self-assurance. Specifically, Egerton recorded 95.7%, Njoro 96.9%, and Gilgil 96.2%. These uniformly high confidence levels reflect the strength of the bootcamp’s practical and learner-centered approach. Participant feedback further supports these findings. One MSME from Njoro shared:

“At first, I was nervous negotiating with suppliers, but the role-playing exercises gave me the confidence to speak up. Last week, I successfully bargained for a 15% discount, something I’d never dared to try before!” A Gilgil MSME noted: “The record-keeping templates were so straightforward that I started using them immediately. I don’t need to ask for help anymore; I finally feel in control of my business finances”.

An Egerton participant added: “I understand the costing formulas, but applying them to my handmade products is tricky. A follow-up workshop where we bring real products to calculate prices together would boost my confidence”. For MSMEs, such confidence is vital, as it increases the likelihood of adopting and sustaining new strategies and innovations in their enterprises.

4.7. Networking and Peer Learning

Gilgil stood out as the most effective location in facilitating networking opportunities, with 96.2% of participants reporting successful connections (Figure 7). This was higher than Egerton (92.6%) and Njoro (88.7%). In contrast, Njoro recorded the highest share of participants who either occasionally or never networked during the training (11.3%), indicating the need for improvement in structuring networking activities. Participant feedback highlights the value and challenges of peer interaction across regions. A Gilgil participant shared: “During the networking lunch, I met a wholesaler who now supplies my shop at a 10% discount. We even agreed to refer customers to each other. This kind of connection is priceless for small businesses like mine”. In Njoro, however, the outcomes were more mixed: “We created a WhatsApp group, but only a few members actively share advice. Maybe if the trainers had set monthly discussion topics, more people would participate consistently”. An Egerton participant reflected: “The group discussions were lively, but without a structured way to stay connected, we lost touch. An organized follow-up meeting or online forum would’ve helped sustain the momentum”.

These insights underscore the importance of structured facilitation in sustaining engagement beyond the bootcamp. While informal channels such as group chats are helpful, their effectiveness depends on consistent coordination and a shared purpose. The strong results in Gilgil suggest that intentional design of networking sessions, such as guided activities, dedicated networking slots, and post-event engagement plans, can significantly enhance peer-to-peer connections. Thus, there is a need to value diverse, collaborative networks in enhancing the impact of research, a principle equally applicable to entrepreneurial ecosystems, where networking fuels resource sharing, problem-solving, and business growth. Embedding structured networking components within training programs can therefore provide lasting value by enabling participants to build supportive, growth-oriented professional networks.

5. Discussions of Findings

The findings of this study contribute to several key debates in the literature on entrepreneurship education, university-industry collaboration, and inclusive MSME development. By situating the KCB Foundation–Egerton Bootcamp within broader theoretical and empirical frameworks, this discussion elucidates the program’s novel contributions while identifying areas for future research and policy action.

5.1. The Pedagogical Value of Experiential Learning in MSME Training

The high participant satisfaction (90%) and skill retention rates align with existing evidence on the effectiveness of experiential learning in entrepreneurship education [40]. The SIYB methodology, emphasizing role-playing, case studies, and hands-on exercises, proved especially effective in bridging the often-cited gap between theory and practice [41]. Notably, the financial literacy module, rated most valuable by 82.7% of participants, reinforces literature from emerging economies showing that poor financial management is a major cause of MSME failure [42]. This study extends prior work by showing how university-led training can contextualize such modules through localized examples, such as agribusiness cash-flow simulations, thereby enhancing both relevance and retention.

5.2. Universities as Intermediaries in the Entrepreneurial Ecosystem

The success of Egerton University’s direct implementation of the bootcamp positions it not only as a knowledge generator but also as a key intermediary in Kenya’s entrepreneurial ecosystem. This aligns with the triple helix model, which emphasizes collaboration among universities, industry, and government [10]. Egerton’s use of internal facilities (Transforming African Agricultural Universities to Meaningfully Contribute to Africa’s Growth and Development (TAGDev) Centre, Crop Management Research Training (CMRT) Centre, and Agricultural Resource Centre) and faculty as certified SIYB trainers provides a replicable HEI-led capacity-building model. The partnership with the KCB Foundation added practical credibility, especially in linking participants to post-training financing, addressing a known shortcoming of purely academic programs [43].

5.3. Inclusivity as a Driver of Program Effectiveness

A key innovation of the bootcamp was its inclusive delivery model, which successfully addressed barriers that often limit participation in entrepreneurship programs. Childcare provision played a central role in increasing female participation; on-site day-care services at Egerton and hired babysitters in Gilgil contributed to a 20% rise in women’s attendance (231 out of 290 invited women participated). This directly challenges the misconception that low female participation stems from a lack of interest, instead pointing to the structural burdens many women face [44]. The program also prioritized accessibility for differently enabled participants. While only 0.9% of Egerton attendees reported disabilities, 4.2% of participants in Njoro were differently abled and benefited from accommodations such as venue ramps, Braille materials, and sign language interpreters. Additionally, 5.5% of Gilgil attendees were refugees or displaced persons. This demonstrates how HEIs can serve as platforms for the economic integration of marginalized groups, an underexplored theme in mainstream MSME training literature [44].

These findings reinforce the role of inclusive pedagogy in transforming participation outcomes. The implementation of equity-centered design directly contests the prevailing assumption that women and refugees do not participate due to lack of entrepreneurial ambition. Instead, the study reveals that logistical, linguistic, and cultural barriers—such as lack of childcare, inaccessible venues, and non-inclusive communication—play a more decisive role in exclusion. By addressing these structural constraints, the program witnessed markedly higher engagement from women, refugees, and persons with disabilities. This success not only validates the inclusive model adopted but also offers a scalable and replicable framework for MSME training programs seeking to improve reach and impact across diverse populations.

5.4. The Digital Divide: A Persistent Challenge for Scaling

The bootcamp revealed a wide variation in baseline skills among participants. Some entrepreneurs lacked basic record-keeping knowledge, while others sought advanced insights into business analytics. To bridge these gaps, facilitators implemented adaptive techniques such as small breakout sessions (up to 15 participants) and peer mentorship to deliver content at appropriate levels. Digital access was another challenge, with around 15% of participants lacking reliable connectivity or smart devices. Trainers addressed this by employing shared-device protocols, such as one tablet for every five users, and leveraging group-based demonstrations. This echoes “last-mile” challenges in digital upskilling [44]. However, this study contributes a low-cost, scalable workaround: group-based demonstrations using shared devices. This model may inform future training designs in resource-constrained contexts.

5.5. The “Mentorship Gap” and Long-Term Sustainability

While immediate feedback was positive, this study identified significant gaps in post-training support. Only 23% of participants (111 out of 481) were selected for follow-up mentorship, leaving many without continued guidance. While effective for immediate skills acquisition, a sustainable impact requires ongoing support, a factor noted in studies on entrepreneurial habituation [34]. The pilot WhatsApp-based Community of Practice (CoP) addresses this need and aligns with emerging models of digital mentorship in Africa, though its scalability and long-term effectiveness warrant further study [33].

6. Conclusions and Policy Implications

6.1. Conclusions

The KCB Foundation–Egerton Business Development Bootcamp provides empirical evidence that universities can play a catalytic role in strengthening MSME capacity through applied, experiential, and inclusive training models. This study makes a significant contribution to the discourse on entrepreneurship education and local economic development in three critical dimensions.

First, the bootcamp illustrates the effectiveness of modular, hands-on approaches, particularly the Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB) framework, in building entrepreneurial competencies among small business owners operating in resource-constrained settings. With a 90% overall satisfaction rate, and high content-specific ratings (82.7% for financial literacy and 96.4% for digital marketing), the bootcamp validates the value of contextualized, participatory learning in African higher education institutions (HEIs), addressing a well-documented gap in the global literature.

Second, the bootcamp’s inclusive delivery model, featuring on-site childcare, disability-friendly facilities, and targeted outreach to refugee entrepreneurs, demonstrated that structural adaptations can significantly expand participation from marginalized groups. The resulting 20% increase in women’s participation challenges entrenched stereotypes about entrepreneurial intent among underserved populations and underscores that access barriers, not motivation, are the primary constraint.

Third, while the short-term outcomes were encouraging, this study exposes a critical limitation: the absence of sustained post-training mentorship. With only 23% of participants selected for follow-up support, these findings raise important questions about the long-term sustainability and scalability of such interventions. This mirrors broader global critiques of one-off training programs that fail to institutionalize ongoing support mechanisms essential for entrepreneurial resilience and business growth.

In sum, the bootcamp highlights the untapped potential of HEIs in leading inclusive and impactful MSME development initiatives. However, to translate short-term success into lasting transformation, future programs must be embedded within a framework that prioritizes structured mentorship, long-term engagement, and deliberate inclusion. These elements are not supplementary; they are foundational to unlocking the full developmental value of entrepreneurship education in Africa.

6.2. Policy Recommendations

6.2.1. For Universities and Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)

HEIs should institutionalize entrepreneurship training as a core function of community engagement and knowledge transfer. Universities must develop standardized bootcamp frameworks anchored in evidence-based pedagogies and informed by local market needs. Leveraging their research and extension infrastructure, HEIs should broaden outreach to marginalized groups, especially women, refugees, and differently abled persons, through strategic partnerships with community organizations and local governments. Moreover, universities should invest in post-training ecosystems such as innovation hubs, business incubation centers, and mentorship programs to support ongoing MSME development. Monitoring and evaluation systems must be embedded to continuously assess their impact, ensure quality assurance, and drive continuous improvement.

6.2.2. For Financial Institutions Sponsoring Training

Banks and financial institutions play a transformative role by integrating capacity-building into their financial inclusion strategies. They should co-design training curricula with HEIs to ensure practical, finance-oriented content, including modules on credit access, savings, digital finance, and business compliance. Furthermore, funding models should incorporate performance incentives for HEIs to achieve diversity and equity benchmarks. Financial institutions are also encouraged to develop tailored loan products or grant schemes linked to training outcomes, offering participants a pathway to post-training capital and technical support.

6.2.3. For MSMEs as Beneficiaries

MSMEs should view university-led training not merely as a one-time learning experience but as a gateway to long-term professional development and business scaling. Participants are encouraged to maintain active engagement with university networks, trainers, and fellow entrepreneurs. Forming alumni associations or community business networks can enhance peer learning and collective bargaining power. MSMEs should also take initiative in seeking out continuous learning opportunities, financial resources, and digital tools introduced during the bootcamp.

6.2.4. For Policymakers and Government Agencies

These findings signal a critical opportunity for policymakers to embed university-based MSME training within national and county development blueprints. Public policy should formally recognize HEIs as key stakeholders in MSME development, allocating resources to support their training, research, and extension functions. Inclusive growth policies must prioritize regional equity, targeting underserved populations with affirmative action strategies. Additionally, government support is needed to develop a national MSME training registry or digital dashboard to monitor program reach, participant outcomes, and capacity gaps across the country. Finally, frameworks to institutionalize public–private–academic partnerships can ensure the sustainability and scalability of such training initiatives.

6.3. Theoretical and Practical Next Steps

This study advocates for a reimagined role for higher education institutions (HEIs) as developmental universities, actively co-designing industry solutions in partnership with the public and private sectors. To deepen the impact and generate transferable insights, several key areas warrant further research and policy attention.

6.3.1. Future Research Directions

To build on the findings of this study, future research should pursue more rigorous and comparative designs to deepen understanding of what works in MSME capacity building.

First, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are essential to isolate the causal effects of specific support interventions. For instance, experimental comparisons between on-site childcare and transport subsidies could yield more precise evidence on which inclusion strategies most effectively increase female participation in entrepreneurship training.

Second, there is a pressing need for longitudinal tracking of business performance among bootcamp participants and matched non-participants. Monitoring key outcomes, such as business survival, revenue growth, employment creation, and digital adoption over a period of at least three years would provide critical insights into the medium- and long-term sustainability of such interventions.

Third, cost–benefit analyses comparing university-led and private-sector MSME training models would help identify the most efficient, scalable, and impactful pathways for deploying public and donor resources. Such analyses could inform evidence-based policymaking and national strategies for skills development and enterprise support.

Finally, future RCTs comparing university-based MSME training programs with non-university or NGO-led alternatives would offer valuable insights into the unique contribution of higher education institutions. Understanding the comparative effectiveness of these models could help define the evolving role of universities within broader entrepreneurship ecosystems in Africa and other emerging markets.

6.3.2. Practical Implications

The KCB Foundation–Egerton model illustrates how universities, by harnessing their pedagogical strengths, infrastructure, and trusted community presence, can deliver MSME support programs that are significantly more inclusive, relevant, and scalable than many conventional approaches. To fully realize this potential, policymakers and development agencies should prioritize funding for such “third mission” activities, which extend beyond traditional teaching and research to directly foster local economic development. One key step is to institutionalize partnerships between universities and financial institutions within national MSME strategies.

For instance, governments could introduce matching grants to encourage bank–university collaboration, mandating that a minimum of 5% of bank Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) funds be allocated to HEI-led entrepreneurship training under Kenya’s MSME Act. Similarly, offering tax incentives to private sector actors who co-develop training curricula with HEIs, an approach successfully employed by South Africa’s Small Enterprise Development Agency, can deepen industry–academic collaboration and ensure curriculum relevance.

To enhance program sustainability, robust digital and hybrid follow-up systems must also be developed. Governments and partners can subsidize mobile data to facilitate ongoing mentorship for alumni through platforms such as WhatsApp, following the example of Rwanda’s Digital Ambassadors initiative. Additionally, establishing national Communities of Practice (CoPs), hosted by HEIs, can provide structured peer support and learning while integrating business survival tracking metrics to monitor entrepreneurial progress over time.

Universities should also adopt more adaptive and inclusive training systems that accommodate varying levels of entrepreneurial experience. This could involve introducing tiered learning tracks, basic and advanced, tailored to participants’ skill levels, much like India’s Skill India Digital Hub. Equally important is embedding inclusivity protocols in training delivery.

Providing childcare services and assistive technologies for participants with disabilities, as demonstrated by Uganda’s Gender-Responsive Entrepreneurship Support programs, ensures broader participation and equity. Together, these strategies position universities not just as centers of knowledge but as catalysts for equitable economic transformation, bridging academia, industry, and community to build a more resilient and inclusive MSME ecosystem.

6.3.3. Limitations of the Study

This study has several limitations. First, it lacks a control group or counterfactual, limiting the ability to attribute observed outcomes solely to the intervention. Second, no rigorous comparisons were made with non-university or private-sector MSME training programs, which constrains analysis of the unique value added by university-led models. Third, no formal pre-training assessment was conducted, making it difficult to measure actual knowledge or skill gains resulting from the program.

Fourth, self-selection bias may be present, as participants were not randomly selected and the sample was not weighted for representativeness. Fifth, some outcome measures, such as confidence and networking success, showed ceiling effects, limiting the ability to detect subtle variations. Sixth, small subgroup sizes (such as refugees and persons with disabilities) reduced its statistical power. Lastly, after applying the Benjamini–Hochberg adjustment for multiple comparisons, most regional differences were not statistically significant, and no further statistical comparison was pursued.