Proliferation of Plastic Packaging and Its Environmental Impacts at the Commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 in Togo

Abstract

The overconsumption of plastic packaging has alarming repercussions on the environment, notably through waste accumulation in public spaces and clogged drains. This study identifies factors driving plastic proliferation, analyzes their impacts, and proposes strategies for sustainable waste management. A cross-sectional design combined document review, field observations, and interviews with 156 households and 24 informants. Descriptive statistics characterized consumption patterns and service access. Impacts were assessed through litter hotspots, blocked drains, flood-prone points, and reported health risks. Households used five to six plastic bags daily, while collection coverage remained below 50%, sustaining persistent leakage. Findings reveal excessive reliance on plastics, shaped by technical, social, and institutional gaps, including weak segregation and limited pre-collection. Agoè-Nyivé 4, a fast-growing peri-urban commune within Greater Lomé, faces limited services but high consumption, making it a relevant case for rapidly growing municipalities. Yet the population often adopts counterproductive practices, hampering responsible waste management. A policy mix is outlined: expanding pre-collection and door-to-door services, integrating informal collectors, and targeted community sensitization. Without urgent interventions, plastic leakage will intensify environmental degradation, flooding, and health risks. The study recommends integrated policy measures to curb single-use dependence and foster a local circular economy.

1. Introduction

The widespread use of plastic packaging has led to a significant increase in household waste, resulting in environmental pollution and an negative impact on public health [1,2,3]. Over the past few decades, plastic bags and other plastic products have become ubiquitous, marking a crucial transformation in consumption habits [4,5]. Global production exceeded 390 million tonnes in 2022, with limited recycling rates and increasing reliance on single-use products [6]. The accumulation of plastic waste in terrestrial and aquatic environments has been identified as one of the most pressing sustainability challenges of the 21st century in the world [7,8]. It is now imperative to rethink the consumption and production models [9,10]. The fast-paced pace of people’s modern lifestyles, characterized by shorter product life cycles and sophisticated goods, is creating a staggering amount of waste [11]. This waste is invading the earth, leading to public health problems (air and water pollution, health risks related to the decomposition of plastics) and environmental crises (degradation of ecosystems, threat to biodiversity, contamination of soil and oceans). Waste management is now a major challenge, both nationally and internationally, and faces many obstacles, including the lack of financial and economic resources, as well as the dysfunction of control services [12]. The importance of environmental perception in individual purchasing decisions is a testament to consumers’ growing commitment to more responsible consumption. Indeed, the urgency of climate change is influencing consumers’ purchasing intentions, encouraging them to favor products with a lower environmental impact [10].

The environmental and health consequences of this proliferation are well documented. Plastics fragment into micro- and nanoplastics that infiltrate soils, rivers, and marine ecosystem s [13,14]. These particles act as vectors for additives and pollutants with toxicological relevance, raising concerns for food security and human health [15,16]. In addition, uncontrolled burning of plastic waste is a common practice in many urban areas, releasing toxic emissions and exacerbating public health risks [17].

Waste management systems worldwide are under severe strain, but the challenges are most acute in low- and middle-income countries [18,19]. Rapid urbanization and limited infrastructure contribute to low collection rates, frequent dumping in open spaces, and obstruction of drainage networks, which in turn increase the risks of flooding and waterborne diseases [20,21]. In Sub-Saharan Africa, informal recycling networks play a major role, yet remain insufficient to prevent widespread leakage of plastics into the environment [18,22]. In Togo, plastics are reported to represent more than 10% of municipal solid waste, with household consumption dominated by flexible packaging such as bags, sachets, and wrappings [23]. Research along the Lomé coastline has highlighted both the predominance of plastic debris and the perception of local communities regarding its environmental and health risks [24]. For an author such as [25], the degradation of the environment is mainly due to economic activity (production and consumption), which leads to the depletion of natural resources, the accumulation of waste and the concentration of pollutants that exceed the capacity of the biosphere.

At the metropolitan scale, studies in Lomé have emphasized persistent gaps in waste collection services, the prevalence of uncontrolled dumping, and the importance of informal actors in waste handling [4,26,27]. However, most existing work remains descriptive and focuses on macro-urban or coastal dynamics [28]. Micro-level analyses at the scale of municipalities or neighborhoods are still limited, despite their importance for understanding how domestic consumption practices translate into local environmental impacts such as blocked drains, waste accumulation in low-lying areas, and informal burning.

Agoè-Nyivé 4, a rapidly urbanizing municipality in the Grand Lomé area with over 150,000 inhabitants [29], exemplifies these dynamics. Preliminary observations point to recurrent plastic accumulation in drainage systems and depressions, reflecting both high levels of consumption and gaps in municipal collection services. Situating the analysis at this scale allows a more nuanced understanding of how socio-economic factors, household practices, and institutional constraints interact to shape the proliferation of plastic waste. This approach complements macro-level diagnostics by generating empirical evidence that is directly relevant to local policy and urban planning in Togo and comparable West African cities. This study will use a mixed methodology, combining household and business surveys, as well as interviews with local stakeholders involved in waste management.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Location of the Study Area

The commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 is located on the northern outskirts of the city of Lomé in the prefecture of Agoè-Nyivé. It is located 17 km from the city center of Lomé and crossed by the National Road No. 1. The commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 is bordered to the north by the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 6, to the east by the valley of the river Zio, to the south by the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 1 and to the west by the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 2 (Figure 1).

The research is conducted in the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4, located on the northern outskirts of Lomé in southern Togo. According to the 2022 General Population and Housing Census, the commune hosts approximately 154,431 inhabitants distributed across 38,608 households. This area was specifically chosen because it is one of the fastest-growing communes in the Greater Lomé District, characterized by rapid urbanization, high population density, and inadequate waste management infrastructure. These factors have intensified the proliferation of plastic waste, making Agoè-Nyivé 4 a representative and relevant case study for understanding the challenges of plastic pollution in emerging urban contexts.

The analysis of Figure 1 shows precisely the location of the study area, which extends between latitudes 6°15′ and 6°17′ North and longitudes 1°10′ and 1°12′ East, thus covering an area of 2800 hectares. The commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 was established in accordance with [30], establishing the 117 communes of Togo. The commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 is home to a considerable population. The commune consists of a single canton divided into 16 villages and 64 districts, where there is an average of five people per household, in accordance with RGPH-4 data. (Website of the municipality of Agoè-Nyivé 4). Unfortunately, rapid urban growth has not been accompanied by adequate infrastructure, basic services and an effective waste management policy. As a result, the local environment has deteriorated significantly. It should be noted that these geographical characteristics of the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 are almost similar to those of the entire agglomeration of Lomé.

2.2. Research Design

A mixed-methods research design was adopted, combining quantitative surveys and qualitative techniques to provide a comprehensive analysis of plastic waste management in Agoè-Nyivé 4. Quantitative data were obtained from household surveys, while qualitative insights were derived from field observations and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders. To ensure robustness, triangulation was applied by cross-checking different sources of evidence. Particular attention was given to assessing the environmental impacts of plastic waste. This was achieved through systematic field documentation using photographic and cartographic inventories to identify accumulation points and informal dumps; observation of drainage infrastructures to record blockages caused by plastics and to document flood-prone areas; and household surveys that included questions on perceived nuisances such as odors, vector proliferation, and environmental degradation, as well as reported health risks related to waterborne diseases and respiratory problems from plastic burning. Together, these complementary approaches allowed for a holistic and reliable assessment of the environmental consequences of plastic waste in the study area.

2.3. Data Collection Procedures

2.3.1. Document Search

Secondary data were collected through an extensive review of academic literature, institutional reports, and statistical databases. Sources included university libraries, governmental agencies such as INSEED, and local organizations engaged in waste management (e.g., T2R, ANASAP, VEGA Recycling). This desk research provided contextual information on plastic packaging consumption, waste generation trends, and regulatory frameworks in Togo. Digital literature has also played a key role in providing recent data on the effects of plastics on the environment. In addition, information from study reports, archives, statistical data, as well as environmental data collected from different administrative entities was used. These data have made it possible to obtain a precise understanding of the quantity and composition of household waste collected in the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4.

2.3.2. Field Observations

Observation, as an essential preliminary tool for any geographical study, has made it possible to explore the natural, human, social and technical conditions that influence environmental practices in Agoè-Nyivé 4. During the field trips, special attention was paid to urban landscapes, which serve as an essential backdrop for socio-economic and household waste management activities. In addition, we evaluated the living environment of the inhabitants within the environment of the municipality of Agoè-Nyivé 4. To do this, we used direct observation and participant observation techniques, which led to the relevant results obtained. These activities took place in the urban space of Agoè-Nyivé 4, in July 2023. To document this observation, photographic images were captured with a focus on areas visibly affected by plastic waste pollution. Indeed, according to ref. [31], photography is a social construction that opens up innovative perspectives on the city and its evolutions. In a similar vein, ref. [32] argues that photography is a powerful guidance tool, sharpening our attention in the initial phase of data collection. Thanks to photography, it has become possible to carry out detailed inventories of places, objects, gestures, behaviors, as well as interactions between individuals. As well as Photographs collected in the field were analyzed using a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative analysis involved georeferencing and counting plastic items per square meter, categorized by type. Qualitative analysis identified typologies of accumulation sites and probable sources. Photos were coded using a standardized grid (item category, accumulation level, environment) with two independent coders to ensure reliability.

2.3.3. Neighborhood Selection and Sample Determination

The study area has about 38,608 households, with an estimated population of 154,431 according to INSEED data 2022 [29].

The sampling frame was established using population data from the 5th General Population and Housing Census (RGPH-5) of 2022, as well as estimates made by INSEED in 2016 To determine the number of households (n) in each survey area, we used the ratio of the population (Ni) of each neighborhood to the estimated average household size (Tm). It should be noted that, according to INSEED estimates in 2016, the average household size in Agoè-Nyivé is about five (05) people. This methodological approach allows us to obtain representative data for each district of the municipality.

To determine the sample of households to be interviewed, the following formula was used.

$$\mathrm{n}=Z^2{\displaystyle \frac{P(1-P)}{m^2}}$$

With:

n = sample size;

m = margin of error;

Z = confidence level;

P = Proportion of households assumed to have the desired traits (P = t/T) with

T = number of households in the area and t = number of households in the study area.

Number of households in the Greater Lomé Autonomous District (DAGL), i.e., T = 547,094 households ref [29].

Number of households in the study area (Agoè-Nyivé 4), t = 38,608 households [29], hence P = 0.07.

Applying the formula with P = 0.07, a confidence level Z = 1.96, and a margin of error m = 4% (0.04). The choice of this margin of error is explained by the large size of the population of the municipality. In general, the margin of error is maintained between 1% and 5%; a higher margin implies a smaller sample, which allows us to obtain a more representative sample of the entire population.

$$\mathrm{n}={\left(1.96\right)}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\left(0.07\right)\left(1-0.07\right)}{{\left(0.04\right)}^2}}$$

n = 156 households

To determine the number of households surveyed by district, the following calculation was made.

$$\mathrm{N}\mathrm{M}\mathrm{E}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r} \mathrm{o}\mathrm{f} \mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{v}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s} \times \mathrm{N}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r} \mathrm{o}\mathrm{f} \mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s} \mathrm{i}\mathrm{n} \mathrm{t}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{n}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{l} \mathrm{n}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r} \mathrm{o}\mathrm{f} \mathrm{n}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{d} \mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s}}}$$

Like what:

$$\begin{gathered} \mathrm{N}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r} \mathrm{o}\mathrm{f} \mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s} \mathrm{s}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{v}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{y}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d} \mathrm{i}\mathrm{n} \mathrm{t}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{T}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{é} \mathrm{c}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{t} = {\displaystyle \frac{156\times 1460 }{\mathrm{38,608}}} \\ \mathrm{N}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r} \mathrm{o}\mathrm{f} \mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s} \mathrm{s}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{v}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{y}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d} \mathrm{i}\mathrm{n} \mathrm{T}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{é} \mathrm{c}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e} = 6 \end{gathered}$$

2.3.4. Interviews

Interviews, the second investigative technique, were conducted with four (4) resource persons from the administrative structures who are members of the technical services division of the Agoè-Nyivé 4 town hall. These exchanges with administrative actors focused on the quality of household waste management services, the budget allocated to waste collection and treatment, equipment and the involvement of municipal authorities in household waste management. We had discussions with ten (10) leaders of the resellers’ associations to understand the perception of resellers on the excessive use of plastic bags. Then, at the end of the discussions with eight (8) managers of the pre-collection structures and two (2) managers of the Aképé Technical Landfill Center (CET) in relation to the household waste management policy in Greater Lomé, 800 tons of waste are produced every day in Greater Lomé based on the daily production of 0.91 kg/inhabitant. A total of 24 people were interviewed using a purpose-built interview guide. These qualitative survey techniques were reinforced by administering the questionnaire to the heads of the household based on relevant variables and indicators, allowing an understanding of the research subject.

2.3.5. Survey Questionnaire

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Questionnaire design

The design of the questionnaire adhered to a rigorous methodological process, incorporating the study’s objectives, hypotheses, indicators, and variables. For this purpose, a questionnaire was designed with KoboCollect software (v. 2.023.21). The questionnaire combined closed questions (approximately 70%) for quantitative analysis and open-ended questions (around 30%) for qualitative insights. The design process included defining objectives, drafting questions, local translation/adaptation, pre-testing on a pilot sample (n = 156), and adjustments based on feedback. Closed questions addressed service usage, waste sorting practices, and adoption of alternatives; open-ended questions explored motivations, perceptions, and barriers.

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Pre-test and questionnaire administration

Conducting the pre-test and administering the questionnaire were essential steps in the overall research process. According to ref. [33], the pre-survey is of crucial importance, because it serves to familiarize oneself with the field of study, to specify the research problem and to define the research questions. It takes the form of a qualitative survey, including semi-structured interviews, document review, and in-depth reflection, with the aim of determining the dimensions of the survey, establishing hypotheses, and formulating appropriate questions and tests.

The pre-test aims to assess the quality of the questionnaire and verify whether the questions appropriately align with the research question. This step made it possible to adjust some questions to make them more understandable for the target population. Then, the actual data collection covering all the neighborhoods of the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 (Figure 2).

Figure 2 illustrates the geographical distribution of the households in which the questionnaire was administered (the blue dots). In total, we surveyed 156 households, which is our core sample for the research, on which we based our analysis to extrapolate the results to the entire municipality.

3. Results

3.1. Rapid Population Growth: A Contributing Factor to the Increase in Household Plastic Waste

Among the household waste generated in the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4, it is household solid waste (HSW) that has the highest production. The continuous population increase in the municipality has contributed, on the one hand, to a high volume of household solid waste and its unregulated disposal, and on the other hand, to pervasive unsanitary conditions throughout the municipality and its surrounding area. Figure 3 below illustrates the evolution of the production estimated from the mass of the HSW of the entire municipality by the pre-collectors, as a function of the population growth over a period of 12 years (2010–2022).

A close look at Figure 3 shows that the growth in the population of the municipality is accompanied by a concomitant increase in the amount of waste it produces. Thus, in 2010, a population of 61,744 inhabitants generated 10,185.231 tons of household waste. From 2018 to 2022, the population and the production of household waste evolved in a synchronized manner, reaching 51,677.1086 tons in 2018 and 95,330.4518 tons in 2022.

The correlation coefficient between population growth and the increase in household solid waste (HSW), the Pearson correlation analysis have been used for the data presented in Figure 3. The dataset covers three time points (2010, 2018, and 2022) for the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was calculated to measure the strength of the relationship between population growth and waste generation. The formula used is as follows:

$$r={\displaystyle \frac{\Sigma \left(xi - \bar{x}\right)\left(yi - \mathrm{ȳ}\right)}{\mathrm{s}\mathrm{q}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{t}\left[\Sigma {\left(\mathrm{x}\mathrm{i}-\bar{\mathrm{x}}\right)}^2\ast \Sigma {\left(\mathrm{y}\mathrm{i}-\mathrm{ȳ}\right)}^2\right]}}$$

where

xi = values of population,

yi = values of HSW production,

$\bar{\mathrm{x}}$ = mean of population,

ȳ = mean of HSW production.

The calculated Pearson correlation coefficient between population growth and HSW production is:

r = 0.9

This indicates a very strong positive correlation: as the population of Agoè-Nyivé 4 increases, household solid waste generation also increases almost proportionally over the period 2010–2022 While the growing population in Agoè-Nyivé 4 contributes to the overall rise in waste volumes, this factor alone does not explain the observed trend in per capita waste generation. At the global level, the steady growth in plastic production and the widespread availability of plastic products since 2010 have been the main drivers of increased per capita plastic waste, even in regions where population growth has remained stable ref. [2].

In this context, population growth in Agoè-Nyivé 4 acts as a local amplifier of a global phenomenon. The expansion of plastic production determines that each individual consumes and discards more plastic today than in the past, while demographic growth intensifies the pressure on waste management systems by multiplying the number of consumers within the same urban space. This dual dynamic structural increase in per capita consumption, combined with rapid local population growth provides a more accurate explanation of the patterns observed in Figure 3.

Population growth has led to an urban expansion of the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4, as illustrated in Figure 4. Indeed, urban sprawl has led to an extension of the distances of more than 15 km that pre-collectors must travel, on roads that are often in poor condition. The inability to quickly adapt existing infrastructure leads to an uncontrolled accumulation of household solid waste, especially plastic waste, in the environment of the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4.

Figure 4 shows the evolution of land use in the municipality over a period of 20 years, from 2002 to 2022. It highlights population growth, characterized by the massive development of housing. In 2002, the natural area largely predominated in the area. However, over the years, there has been a substantial decrease in the surface area dedicated to this natural area. In 2012, its decline was already noticeable, giving way to urbanized areas. In 2022, the natural area had almost disappeared, leaving the way for a significant expansion of housing.

This growing urban dynamic exceeds the capacity of the municipality’s waste management infrastructure, including intermediate dumps, the distribution of garbage bins in all districts, and the accessibility of pre-collectors to all households, accentuated by the lengthening of distances due to urban sprawl and roads in poor condition. Also, the incivility of households that do not have a contractual relationship with associative waste collection organizations and that dump their waste on unauthorized spaces, whether public or private, that are not built on. Thus, this practice inevitably carries the risk of clandestine discharges, leading to waste being disposed of outside health standards. The socio-economic aspect is a critical area of inquiry for gaining a comprehensive understanding of the challenges associated with plastic waste.

3.2. Socio-Professional Situation of Respondents Dominated by the Small Street Trader

The strong presence of traders in the commune is closely linked to income-generating activities, mostly carried out by women, such as street food activities and in general, the sale of everyday consumer products. Indeed, commercial activities are factors in the distribution of plastic bags, widely used to package everyday consumer products and others. Findings from interviews with retailers indicate that such packaging is distributed in large volumes, often at little to no cost. This means that, when shopping, customers no longer carry baskets or bags to carry their groceries.

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Reasons for using plastic bags

Respondents cite several reasons for using plastic bags rather than other packaging. The reasons are mainly free (52.30%), low cost (30.73%), convenience (12.85%), and others (4.12%).

Of the 156 households surveyed, 141 of them, or 90.37%, find that the use of plastic bags has particular advantages. Of these 141 cases, 129, or 91.88%, link this advantage to the price of the bags. They are not expensive and are within everyone’s reach. For many users, the appeal of plastic bags stems from their practicality and ease of use. Households, in particular, highlight their space-saving nature compared to other containers such as baskets, an advantage they consider highly valuable. They say that with the bags, it is possible to do several errands at the same time without being encumbered by carrying a basket for example, and you can obtain them almost everywhere. It should therefore be remembered that price and convenience are advantageous factors that determine the use of plastic bags at the household level.

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A large household size in the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4, a source of abundant plastic waste production

According to the United Nations Multilingual Demographic Dictionary, the household is a socio-economic unit, consisting of individuals who live together. The study of household size has a direct implication on the level of household waste production. Thus, the household survey at the neighborhood level made it possible to divide them into three classes, as illustrated in Figure 5.

The data in Figure 5 reveal that in 54% of the concessions studied, the resident population exceeds six individuals. In 43% of these concessions, there are between three and five residents, while only 3% of concessions are inhabited by fewer than three people. More specifically, in neighborhoods such as Fidokpui, Bokor Kopé and Zongo, many households share small dwellings that lack basic amenities.

The predominance of households composed of more than six people is largely explained by the prohibitive cost of rents in the neighborhoods of Lomé, a trend that has taken shape since 2015. In our field survey, one question was why households chose to reside in these outlying neighborhoods. On this question, 87% of the households surveyed indicated that their choice was motivated by more affordable rents. As a result, subscribing to essential services such as waste management becomes a constraint for economically vulnerable heads of households, as it is calculated according to the size of the household. The larger the household size, the higher the waste generation, resulting in higher subscription costs. Neighborhoods with many people are often at risk of being inhabited by low-income households. The economic precariousness of households contributes to the degradation of their environment, thus creating a harmful cycle in which poverty and the deterioration of the living environment reinforce each other.

3.3. The Environmental Impacts Caused by Plastic Waste in the Commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4

Solid waste pre-collection in Agoè-Nyivé 4: challenges and constraints in the face of the proliferation of plastic waste.

Within households, the tasks of sweeping and maintaining the yard are usually entrusted to women and children, reflecting a traditional gender-based division of household tasks. The waste is generally deposited in baskets made from the fasteners of bales, bags or barrels, then stored in a corner of the yard or at the entrance to the house (Figure 6). When it comes to the spaces outside the dealership, the concern for cleanliness is often less.

Figure 6 illustrates the household waste storage system; we can see that the bins are overflowing, and flexible plastics abound around these bins. According to the women, plastic waste management is difficult because of its light nature. They fly away at any gust of wind and scatter throughout the neighborhood. Therefore, the plastic waste found along the walls is not necessarily generated by residents, but by passers-by or by the action of the wind. As far as subscribing to pre-collection services is concerned, 44% of respondents subscribe to these services, while 56% do not. It is important to note that the percentage of those who are not subscribers is significantly high. A deeper analysis shows that cost remains the most frequently cited reason for non-subscription, as many households consider the fees charged by private operators unaffordable compared to their income levels. Accessibility issues also play a major role: in certain neighborhoods, collection services do not cover all areas, or trucks pass too irregularly, discouraging residents from subscribing. In addition, some respondents expressed a lack of trust in the reliability and quality of these services, preferring to manage their waste independently. As households do not use pre-collection services, their waste management methods vary: 85% deposit it in landfills, 10.6% incinerate it, or leave it in corners or pits on their plots. Some households in the municipality admit to burying their waste (1.1%). The waste is then disposed of by combustion or simply by decomposition, while the informal sector recovers certain recoverable materials (3.2%). The collectors who intervene are private organizations.

In the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4, waste pre-collection is primarily carried out by micro-enterprises and informal groups of young people. These actors collect various types of waste, including organic, paper, metal, and plastic waste. However, there is no formal system for the separate collection, recycling, or treatment of waste in the study area. As a result, the collected waste is handled in an uncoordinated manner: some groups transport plastic and other wastes to illegal dumpsites, while others take them to intermediate landfills located in neighboring communes, since Agoè-Nyivé 4 lacks its own proper intermediate landfill. This absence of a structured waste management system not only limits opportunities for recycling and recovery but also contributes to environmental pollution and health risks for the local population. The municipality of Agoè-Nyivé 4 does not have a door-to-door pre-collection service. It is the private pre-collection structures that are responsible for collecting garbage from households under the control of the municipality’s technical services division.

Accumulation of plastic waste in depression areas: A worrying intrusion into the landscape of the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4.

The relief of the commune, characterized by small plateaus and depressions, is influenced by the proximity of the Zio River and the relatively low altitudes. Neighborhoods such as Fidokpui, Zongo, and Akoin are in depressions, making access difficult, especially during the rainy season when these areas are occupied by runoff.

During rainy periods, solid household waste is carried away by runoff water to these lowland neighborhoods, such as Bokor Copé, Dikamè, Agoè Zongo, and others. These waters often drain plastic waste, which tends to persist in the environment because of its resistance. The neighborhoods most affected by this drainage of household solid waste are Ahoussa Zongo and Kotokoli Zongo. As a result, household solid waste, including plastic waste, accumulates in depressions, especially in the Nyivémè and Agoè Zongo neighborhoods. Residents living near these steep areas are forced to use these shallows, which are already clogged with this waste, as storage places for their household waste, as shown in Figure 7.

The observation in Figure 7 shows a lowland invaded by solid household waste. This lowland appears to be the focal point for waste, and it is mainly fed by rainfall and runoff that drains household solid waste into this area. This situation illustrates a major waste management problem in the study area. Household solid waste is visibly poorly managed, leading to its accumulation in unsuitable low-pressure areas, such as lowlands.

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The state of the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 during the rainy season.

During the rainy season, runoff carries plastic waste to certain neighborhoods, including Bokor Kopé, Akoin, Fidokpui, Togblé, and Zongo. These areas, below, act as accumulation points for rainwater and the plastic waste it carries. Residents of these neighborhoods are thus exposed to the risk of flooding and waterborne diseases, particularly malaria and diarrhea. Each rainy season is experienced with anguish by the populations living near the neighborhoods below, in particular Zongo and Togblé kopé, where floods cause material damage such as flooding of the streets (see Figure 8) and sometimes forcing the inhabitants to leave their homes temporarily or permanently because of the difficult access to their homes, which are sometimes also flooded.

The observation of Figure 8, taken in Haoussa Zongo, offers a striking overview of the situation of the streets in Agoè-Nyivé 4 after a period of rain. The consequences of this precipitation are obvious, as the water stagnates for a minimum of four days on the roads. This stagnation considerably hinders mobility, while the floating waste on this water surface contributes to the sanitary degradation of these streets.

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Plastic waste clogs water drainage systems.

A key finding from our field investigations is that plastic waste, such as bags, bottles, and other plastic materials, has significantly contributed to the obstruction of pipes within the sanitation infrastructure. When this waste is recklessly dumped in gutters or stormwater drainage systems, it insidiously accumulates to create blockages to the flow of water. The consequences of these obstructions are reflected in wastewater overflows, flooding that is damaging to the urban environment, and significant disruptions to sanitation infrastructure (Figure 8 and Figure 9).

Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the critical situation where plastic waste has caused a blockage in the stormwater drainage systems, preventing the flow of water. This problem frequently results in rainwater overflows, significantly disrupting the flow of road traffic and causing flooding in neighboring neighborhoods, especially during intense rainfall. This reality highlights the direct impact of plastic waste on urban infrastructure, generating harmful consequences not only in terms of mobility but also in terms of quality of life for the inhabitants of the region. The inadequate management of plastic waste is thus emerging as a tangible threat to the safety and well-being of local communities, requiring immediate and sustainable solutions.

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Flood and Health Risks Associated with Plastic Waste Accumulation in Agoè-Nyivé 4

In the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4, the accumulation of plastic waste in drains and low-lying areas is directly associated with recurrent flooding during the rainy season. Household surveys conducted with a representative sample revealed that 68% of respondents experienced at least one flood event over the past 12 months. Municipal records, obtained from the Urban Planning and Disaster Risk Management Department, indicate that the commune experiences two to three major flood events per year. These official reports are based on field observations carried out by municipal teams after each event, documenting the extent, location, and material impacts of floods. The health impacts of these floods were assessed using statistical records from local health centers, which record daily consultations and diagnoses by disease category. Analysis of data from June to September 2023 showed a 24% increase in malaria cases, coinciding with the peak flood period. Diarrheal diseases also increased by approximately 15% in the post-flood months, confirming household perceptions of deteriorating sanitary conditions.

4. Discussion

4.1. Source of the Proliferation of Plastic Waste

The proliferation of household solid waste in Greater Lomé is generally linked to uncontrolled urbanization, population growth, and a weak management system. This analysis is similar to that of ref. [34] who, in his doctoral thesis on the “insalubrity and management of household waste in the city of Lomé in Togo”, states that uncontrolled urbanization excludes the majority of the population of Lomé and its periphery from access to essential services (waste management, transport, distribution of drinking water and electricity, sanitation, etc.).

As for plastics, their proliferation in the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4 can be attributed to several socio-economic and structural factors. According to ref. [4,35], the main reason for the ubiquity of plastics in urban areas in sub-Saharan Africa is their low production cost and accessibility. Plastic packaging, especially plastic bags, bottles, and films, is widely used because of its durability and light weight. In Agoè-Nyivé 4, this trend is accentuated by the lack of accessible and affordable ecological alternatives for local consumers. Plastics are perceived as practical and economical materials, used in small shops and informal markets, which is why ref. [3] pointed out that in many developing countries, the plasticity of materials and their low cost of production are considerable advantages over more expensive and less accessible ecological alternatives. Togo’s National Environmental Management Plan report (2018) also highlights another major factor: the inefficiency of waste management systems. In many African cities, including Agoè-Nyivé 4 and its surroundings, there is insufficient waste collection and treatment infrastructure, resulting in an accumulation of plastic waste in the environment. The lack of awareness about waste management and the importance of recycling further aggravates this situation. According to ref. [36], a significant proportion of plastics in these regions is poorly managed, ending up either in uncontrolled landfills or in drainage canals and waterways. The population, often without alternatives for curbside recycling or recycling points, contributes to this situation by throwing plastics directly into the environment.

4.2. Household Plastic Waste Generation

Households were found to generate an average of five to six plastic bags per day, corresponding to an annual projection of over 10,000 tonnes of plastic waste in the commune. This level of generation is consistent with previous studies in Lomé and other West African cities, which reported similar high dependence on single-use packaging due to low cost, convenience, and limited availability of alternatives ref. [4,37]. In Accra, Ghana, for example, plastic bags accounted for 16–23% of household waste streams ref. [38], while in Cotonou, Benin, plastic packaging has been identified as the dominant fraction of municipal waste ref. [34]. These comparisons confirm that plastic bags remain a critical component of urban solid waste in the region, reflecting both cultural consumption patterns and weaknesses in regulatory enforcement.

4.3. Access to Collection Services and Household Practices

Only 44% of surveyed households reported subscribing to pre-collection services, while more than half continued to dispose of waste through informal or uncontrolled practices such as open dumping and burning. This subscription rate is lower than figures reported in other West African cities, where private pre-collection services often reach 60–70% of households in wealthier districts ref. [38], but higher than in peri-urban areas of Togo, where formal waste services are almost absent ref. [39]. The relatively low uptake in Agoè-Nyivé 4 highlights both economic barriers and limited trust in service reliability. It also means that affordability and accessibility remain critical determinants of household behavior, as similarly noted by ref. [40].

4.4. Environmental Impacts of Plastic Packaging

One of the main impacts of plastics is their persistence in the environment. Indeed, as pointed out ref. [13], plastics can take hundreds of years to degrade. In soil, this can lead to long-term contamination of farmland and wildlife. In Agoè-Nyivé 4, uncollected plastic waste often accumulates in public spaces, vacant lots, and riverbanks. This phenomenon has direct consequences on the quality of water and soil. Plastics, when broken down, release toxic chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates that can pollute groundwater and contaminate agricultural crops.

In ref. [3] studies on plastic pollution in Africa have found that plastics, when they degrade in aquatic environments, release pollutants that affect not only biodiversity but also human health by contaminating water resources. The presence of plastics in waterways in Agoè-Nyivé 4 jeopardizes drinking water quality, especially for communities that rely on untreated water sources.

The impacts on biodiversity are also worrying. Ref. [41] show that plastics, especially in the form of microplastics, are ingested by many marine and terrestrial species, causing internal injuries, deformities and death in animals. Although Agoè-Nyivé 4 is an inland municipality, plastics in rivers can eventually reach coastal areas, where they pose a danger to marine ecosystems. In addition, plastics that are ingested by local aquatic species, such as fish and waterbirds, can disrupt the local food chain. In ref. [42], the authors have demonstrated that plastics can enter the food chain and affect local wildlife, including bird and fish species found in the area.

Plastic waste management also contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Ref. [43] notes that the production and processing of plastics generate a significant amount of GHGs, through recycling or incineration. In Agoè-Nyivé 4, where the burning of plastic waste is common, it generates not only air pollutants but also greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change. Incinerated plastic waste releases volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and dioxins, which are highly toxic substances.

The effects of plastic pollution on public health are well-documented. Ref. [44] reports that burning plastics under uncontrolled conditions releases harmful chemicals that affect the respiratory tract, leading to chronic respiratory disease and heart disorders. In Agoè-Nyivé 4, the lack of adequate management of plastic waste leads to illegal combustion outbreaks, exposing the local population to these health risks.

Plastics, when ingested by animals or contaminating waterways, also increase the risk of water-related diseases. It appears that flooding due to the obstruction of canals by plastics contributes to the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery, thus directly affecting the populations of Agoè-Nyivé 4.

4.5. Reducing Plastic Waste and Its Impacts

One of the first steps to tackle plastic pollution in Agoè-Nyivé 4 is to improve waste management. According to ref. [45] effective waste management requires the establishment of separate collection, recycling and waste treatment systems. Adopting sustainable waste management strategies, with incentives for recycling and reducing single-use plastics, could reduce the quantity of plastics being dumped into the environment.

In addition, the promotion of ecological alternatives to plastics is essential to reduce their use and the implementation of policies that promote biodegradable alternatives, such as canvas bags, paper packaging or reusable containers. However, the adoption of these alternatives largely depends on their cost and accessibility. For example, while canvas bags are durable and environmentally friendly, their higher upfront price compared to free or low-cost plastic bags discourages many low-income households and traders from using them. Similarly, paper packaging and biodegradable containers are not always available in local markets, and when they are, their prices remain significantly higher than single-use plastics. Recyclable materials, such as glass or metal containers, are often durable but pose challenges in terms of weight, transport, and initial purchase costs. In the context of Agoè-Nyivé 4, affordability and accessibility therefore represent key barriers to behavioral change. To make recommendations more concrete, policies should not only promote alternatives but also include measures such as subsidies for eco-friendly products, tax exemptions for importers and producers of biodegradable packaging, and support for local production of affordable substitutes by financing waste collector cooperatives. Awareness campaigns could then emphasize both the long-term cost-effectiveness and environmental benefits of these alternatives, making them more appealing and feasible for the population. Also, strict regulations on the use of single-use plastics could have a significant impact. Local governments play a central role in legislation, coordination, financing, and awareness campaigns.

It should be emphasized that raising awareness among the population about the harmful effects of plastics and the importance of reducing them is crucial. Ref. [46] point out that awareness and education campaigns can sustainably change citizens’ behaviors and encourage them to adopt more sustainable waste management practices.

4.6. Policy and Governance Implications

The findings highlight the urgent need for strengthened municipal services and regulatory frameworks in Lomé. While national policies on plastic bag reduction exist, enforcement remains weak. Comparisons with Rwanda, where strict bans have significantly reduced plastic bag use [47], demonstrate that stronger political will and monitoring mechanisms can be effective. However, bans alone are insufficient if not complemented by affordable alternatives and public awareness campaigns. The role of the informal sector also needs recognition, as informal collectors and recyclers currently manage a significant share of waste in West African cities [48]. Formalizing and integrating these actors could enhance collection efficiency and recycling rates.

4.7. Limitations and Perspectives

This study relied on household surveys, direct observations, and secondary demographic projections to estimate waste generation. While these methods provide valuable proxies of environmental impacts, they do not capture detailed physicochemical analyses of plastic waste (e.g., microplastic pollution, chemical leachates). Furthermore, the study period may not reflect seasonal variations in waste generation. Future research should employ longitudinal data collection and life cycle assessment (LCA) approaches to evaluate the environmental footprint of plastic waste management systems in Togo.

5. Conclusions

This study has provided one of the first micro-level analyses of domestic plastic packaging consumption and its environmental impacts in the commune of Agoè-Nyivé 4, Greater Lomé. The research offers empirical evidence on the frequency and types of plastic packaging used by households, revealing behavioral patterns and socio-economic determinants that are rarely captured in broader national or regional assessments. By combining household surveys with field documentation of litter hotspots, blocked drains, and flood-prone points, the study also demonstrated how everyday consumption and disposal practices translate into concrete environmental and health risks at the local scale.

A further contribution of this work lies in its methodological approach. The integration of objective indicators, such as photographic inventories and drainage observations, with subjective indicators derived from community perceptions, provides a replicable framework for assessing localized plastic waste impacts. This methodological design strengthens the analysis and offers a model that can be adapted in similar urban contexts.

Beyond the case of Agoè-Nyivé 4, the findings carry broader implications. They highlight the acute vulnerabilities of rapidly growing peri-urban areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, where waste management infrastructures often lag behind demographic expansion and rising consumption. More broadly, the study underscores the importance of micro-local investigations in designing targeted interventions that can subsequently inform city-wide or national strategies. In doing so, it contributes to the global debate on plastic pollution by demonstrating that effective solutions must be rooted in local realities, behaviors, institutions, and infrastructures rather than relying solely on generalized approaches.